Dr. Terry Sejnowski: How to Improve at Learning Using Neuroscience & AI

Dr. Terry Sejnowski (0s)

• Dr. Terry Sejnowski is a professor at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, where he directs the Computational Neurobiology Laboratory, and uses math, artificial intelligence, and computing methods to understand how the brain works (17s).
• Dr. Sejnowski's work aims to clarify and simplify the understanding of the brain using computational neuroscience, algorithms, large language models, and AI (50s).
• A single learning rule drives all motivation-related behaviors, which is related to the neuromodulator dopamine, and understanding this can help overcome lack of motivation (1m12s).
• Dr. Sejnowski shares practical tools, including a zero-cost online portal, to teach individuals how to learn better based on their particular learning style (1m41s).
• Dr. Sejnowski uses physical exercise to enhance his cognition and brain's ability to learn information and come up with new ideas (1m55s).
• The discussion also covers the healthy brain and the diseased brain in conditions like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's, and how tools related to mitochondrial function can be used to treat diseases, including Alzheimer's dementia (2m7s).

Sponsors: BetterHelp & Helix Sleep (2m32s)

• The podcast is separate from the host's teaching and research roles at Stanford, and its purpose is to provide free information about science and science-related tools to the general public (2m32s).
• BetterHelp is a sponsor of the podcast, offering professional therapy with a licensed therapist completely online, which is considered an essential component of overall health (2m49s).
• Great therapy provides three things: a good rapport with someone you can trust, support in the form of emotional support or guidance, and expert insights that you may not have been able to arrive at on your own (3m18s).
• BetterHelp makes it easy to find an expert therapist who you resonate with, and using the code "huberman" at betterhelp.com provides 10% off the first month (3m49s).
• Helix Sleep is another sponsor of the podcast, making customized mattresses and pillows tailored to individual sleep needs, which is crucial for mental health, physical health, and performance (4m0s).
• A brief two-minute quiz on the Helix website helps match users with their ideal mattress based on their unique sleep needs, such as sleeping position and temperature preferences (4m27s).
• The host has personally used a Helix mattress, specifically the Dusk mattress, for over three years and has experienced the best sleep ever (4m41s).
• Helix is offering up to 25% off all mattress orders and two free pillows for the month of November 2024, and users can take the sleep quiz at helixsleep.com using the code "huberman" (5m2s).

Brain Structure & Function, Algorithmic Level (5m19s)

• The brain can be understood by knowing its parts list, which includes cells, neurons, and their connections, but this knowledge does not necessarily inform us how the brain works or what consciousness is (5m47s).
• The brain's functioning can be understood by considering the levels of investigation at different spatial scales, from molecular to the whole central nervous system, spanning 10 orders of magnitude (7m21s).
• There are two approaches that scientists have taken to understand the brain: the bottom-up approach, which involves taking the brain apart and understanding its components, and the top-down approach, which involves looking at behavior and trying to understand the laws of behavior (7m53s).
• Both the bottom-up and top-down approaches have not been successful in answering the big questions about the brain, such as how it works and what consciousness is (9m4s).
• A new approach is emerging in both neuroscience and AI, which involves an intermediate level between the implementation level and the behavioral level, and this approach is considered remarkable and promising (9m21s).
• The book "Computational Brain" by Pat Churchland and the speaker discusses the levels diagram, which illustrates the different levels of investigation in the brain (7m19s).
• The brain's functioning can be understood by considering the connections between neurons, circuits, and brain areas, and how they work together to enable us to see, hear, think, and perceive the world (6m2s).
• The brain's functioning is still not fully understood, and scientists are still trying to answer the big questions about how it works and what consciousness is (6m16s).
• The algorithmic level is the level at which the actual behavior of a system is described, and it is situated between the implementation and computational levels, with algorithms being like recipes that require specific ingredients and steps to produce the desired outcome (9m26s).
• Algorithms used in neural circuits have been discovered, and significant progress has been made in understanding these algorithms, which is essential for understanding the function of neural circuits at the computational level (10m0s).
• An example of an algorithm is the one discovered in the 1990s by Peter Dayan, Reed Montague, and others in the lab, which involves the basal ganglia, a part of the brain responsible for learning sequences of actions to achieve a goal (10m19s).
• The basal ganglia plays a crucial role in learning and improving sequences of actions, such as those required to play tennis, by taking over from the cortex and producing actions that get better with practice (10m41s).
• The basal ganglia's role in learning and improvement is not limited to physical actions but also applies to thinking and becoming proficient in a particular area, such as finance, medicine, or neuroscience (11m13s).
• The basal ganglia interacts with the cortex, both in the action part and the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for thinking, to facilitate learning and improvement (11m39s).

Basal Ganglia; Learning & Value Function (11m49s)

• The basal ganglia are involved in organizing two major types of behaviors: "go" (performing a behavior) and "no-go" (instructing not to engage in a behavior), and learning a complex skill like a golf swing or tennis racket swing involves both of these processes (11m49s).
• The basal ganglia are also involved in generating thoughts of particular kinds, and it is likely that they are also involved in the suppression of thoughts of particular kinds, such as a surgeon needing to focus on the task at hand and not think about personal issues (12m19s).
• There is a "go" and "no-go" process in terms of action and learning, and also in terms of thinking, with the prefrontal cortex playing a key role in this process, particularly in adolescence when the "no-go" part is not yet fully developed (12m53s).
• Learning is involved in the basal ganglia's function, and the brain uses a simple algorithm to learn sequences of actions to achieve a goal, which is to predict the next reward and update the synapses based on the outcome (13m37s).
• This algorithm is used to build up a "value function" over time, which is a knowledge base of things that are good or bad, and is used in decision-making, such as choosing what to order at a restaurant (14m16s).
• The same algorithm used by the brain is also used by artificial intelligence programs, such as AlphaGo, which beat the world Go champion, demonstrating the power of this simple yet effective learning algorithm (14m38s).
• The game of Go is extremely complex, far more so than chess, and requires thinking in terms of multiple battles happening simultaneously, making it a challenging game for humans and AI alike (14m51s).

Value Function, Reward & Punishment (15m23s)

• The value function is a crucial concept in learning, and it is implemented over long periods of time, allowing individuals to tap into it even after intervening time and learning (15m30s).
• The value function is not limited to motor learning but is also applied in more complex scenarios, such as human relationships, where individuals learn through trial and error (16m11s).
• Rewards and punishments play a significant role in updating the value function, with every experience accumulating and contributing to the individual's experience and identity (16m59s).
• The value function is a permanent part of an individual's experience and identity, and it can be shaped through trial and error, with small rewards being effective in gradual learning (17m8s).
• Negative punishment, however, is more effective in one-trial learning, allowing individuals to learn quickly from a single bad experience (17m44s).
• The prefrontal cortex plays a significant role in social interaction, and a large part of it is devoted to this function, enabling humans to learn and adapt to social norms and cultural values through experience (18m25s).
• The concept of the value function is also applied in artificial intelligence, specifically in reinforcement learning, which is a form of procedural learning that enables automatic and efficient learning (18m52s).
• Procedural learning is more efficient than cognitive thinking, as it allows for automatic processing, whereas cognitive thinking requires step-by-step processing (19m6s).

Cognitive vs. Procedural Learning, Active Learning, AI (19m14s)

• Procedural learning is essential for tasks that require quick and expert execution, such as scuba diving, where learning through practice and experience is crucial, rather than just reading about it in a book (19m15s).
• An example of procedural learning is learning how to play tennis, which cannot be fully learned through reading a book, but rather through practice and experience (19m40s).
• Pilots also learn through a combination of practical learning and textbook learning, highlighting the importance of both types of learning (20m5s).
• In school, classroom lessons provide explicit instruction, while homework and problem-solving activities are examples of procedural learning (20m55s).
• Procedural learning is essential for becoming proficient in a subject, such as physics, where solving problems and applying equations is crucial, rather than just memorizing them (21m6s).
• Protocols, such as getting morning sunlight to stimulate the suprachiasmatic nucleus, can be learned through knowledge, but also require practice to be effective (21m30s).
• Knowing the underlying mechanisms of a protocol can be valuable, but it is also important to link knowledge to practice, as the two can reinforce each other (21m48s).
• The cognitive learning system, which is cortical, and the procedural learning system, which is subcortical, work together and are both essential for effective learning (22m35s).
• To become good at anything, practice and procedural learning are essential, and they complement each other (22m49s).
• Some schools in California are trying to eliminate procedural learning, which is counterproductive as it stresses the importance of practice and can lead to difficulties in learning (22m54s).
• The massive open online course "Learning How to Learn" by Barbara Oakley and the speaker, aimed at students but taken by four million people in 200 countries, ages 10 to 90, is completely free and helps students learn effectively (23m40s).
• Testing oneself on material is not just a form of evaluation but also a way to identify errors and compensate for them, leading to better learning (24m12s).
• The brain does not memorize things like a computer but requires active learning, engaging actively in problem-solving, and learning by trial and error (24m39s).
• When trying to solve a problem on one's own, the brain uses the procedural system, which is essential for learning and generalizing (24m52s).
• The key to AI's recent success, particularly in large language models, is their ability to generalize and solve new problems, not just memorize data (25m14s).
• The brain is good at generalizing, often requiring only one example to generalize and solve new problems (25m46s).

Learning & Brain Storage (25m56s)

• When learning a new process, such as going to a restaurant, there are key action steps that can be applied to various situations, and this process involves an action function learned from knowledge and experience (25m57s).
• The action function is thought to be stored in the brain, but it is unclear whether it is stored in one location or is an emergent property of multiple brain areas (26m45s).
• Historically, it was believed that different parts of the cortex were dedicated to specific functions, such as the visual cortex and auditory cortex, but new recording techniques have shown that multiple areas of the brain interact globally to perform tasks (27m1s).
• Research using optical recording techniques has found that tasks engage not just the expected area, but also other areas, such as the motor system, which can provide more input than the primary sensory system (27m40s).
• This global interaction between brain areas is where complex cognitive behaviors emerge, and new tools have made it possible to observe these interactions in real-time (28m19s).
• Research has been conducted on mice and monkeys, and is now being done on humans, including those with epilepsy who have had electrodes implanted for surgical purposes (28m34s).
• A collaboration with a group at Mass General Hospital has allowed for the recording of neural activity in people with epilepsy, providing a unique opportunity to study the human brain (28m44s).
• This research has provided valuable insights into the human brain, including the process of learning and the neural activity that occurs during sleep (29m25s).
• The study of humans with epilepsy has also provided a chance to teach them new things and learn about the neural basis of their experiences (29m48s).
• The ability to record neural activity in humans has been described as a "gold mine" for scientific research, providing opportunities to learn about the human brain that could not be obtained from other species (29m58s).

Traveling Waves, Sleep Spindles, Memory (30m8s)

• Traveling waves occur during sleep, specifically in non-rapid eye movement (non-REM) sleep, and are circular in nature, moving around the cortex in a circular motion (30m14s).
• These traveling waves, also known as sleep spindles, last for about a second or two and are important for consolidating experiences from the day into long-term memory storage (30m58s).
• The hippocampus replays experiences during sleep, causing the sleep spindles to "knead" the information into the cortex, allowing for the incorporation of new experiences into existing knowledge without overwriting it (31m22s).
• The hippocampus is crucial for long-term memory, and without it, new learning and memory formation are impaired, making it difficult to remember events from the previous day or even an hour earlier (31m29s).
• The process of consolidating experiences into long-term memory through sleep spindles is essential for efficient learning and memory, allowing new information to be integrated into existing knowledge without interference (31m57s).

Sponsors: AG1 & David (32m8s)

• AG1 is a vitamin, mineral, probiotic drink that includes prebiotics and adaptogens, and has been consumed since 2012 due to its ability to provide essential nutrients that are difficult to obtain from whole foods alone (32m9s).
• AG1 has been found to improve physical health, mental health, performance, and recovery from exercise, as well as provide mental clarity and energy (32m47s).
• A special offer for AG1 is available at drinkag1.com/huberman, which includes a free one-month supply of omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil, a welcome kit with five free travel packs, and a year supply of vitamin D3 K2 (33m10s).
• Omega-3 fatty acids are critical for brain health, mood, cognition, and more (33m31s).
• David is a protein bar that contains 28 grams of protein, only 150 calories, and 0 grams of sugar, making it a high-quality protein source (33m43s).
• David protein bars are available in various flavors, are incredibly delicious, and can be used as a quick snack to help meet daily protein goals (33m57s).
• A link to try David protein bars is available at david.com/huberman (34m48s).

Tool: Increase Sleep Spindles; Memory, Ambien; Prescription Drugs (34m57s)

• To ensure sufficient sleep spindles at night and incorporate new knowledge, it is essential to get enough sleep, as sleep spindles play a crucial role in memory consolidation and learning (34m58s).
• Research has shown an interesting relationship between daytime exercise and nighttime prevalence of sleep spindles, suggesting that exercise can positively impact sleep quality (35m33s).
• Sleep is a critical aspect of brain function, and it is not just a state of rest, but rather a complex process that involves different stages, including memory consolidation, dreams, and REM sleep (35m52s).
• Exercise is particularly important for getting the motor system "tuned up" and is thought to be involved in the REM sleep stage (36m16s).
• REM sleep is one of the stages of sleep that people go through during the night, alternating between dream sleep and slow-wave sleep (36m32s).
• Scientist Sarah Mednick conducted an experiment using the drug zolpidem (also known as Ambien) to study the effect of increased sleep spindles on memory consolidation (37m7s).
• The study found that taking zolpidem after learning increased the number of sleep spindles, resulting in improved memory recall and stability over time (37m41s).
• However, the downside of taking Ambien is that it can cause memory loss, particularly in relation to events that occurred while under the influence of the drug (38m8s).
• This memory loss can be disorienting, as seen in cases of jet lag, where individuals may wake up in an unfamiliar environment with no memory of how they got there (38m20s).
• The concept of improving learning and recall while also experiencing forgetfulness is explored, highlighting the importance of consolidating past experiences while potentially wiping out future experiences after taking a certain drug, such as Ambien (38m54s).
• The idea that "you don't get anything for free" is discussed, suggesting that tweaking one aspect of the brain can have unintended consequences elsewhere, a concept that applies not only to brain drugs but also to body steroids and hormones (40m3s).
• The example of steroids, including low-dose testosterone therapy, is given, which can provide benefits like increased vigor but also introduces a second puberty, a rapid phase of aging (40m22s).
• Growth hormone therapy is also mentioned, which can give people more vigor but accelerates aging, as evident in the quality of skin in individuals taking this therapy (40m40s).
• The growing interest in nootropics, such as modafinil, is discussed, and it is suggested that while these substances may enhance cognitive function, people who obsess over their use may pay a price in other ways, as behaviors will always prevail as tools (41m3s).
• The body's need for balance is emphasized, and it is noted that using drugs can unbalance this equilibrium, leading to consequences where one part of the body is improved at the expense of another (41m37s).

Psilocybin, Brain Connectivity (42m2s)

• Research on LSD is limited due to its illegal status, making it difficult for researchers to conduct clinical trials, whereas psilocybin has been studied more extensively, with some clinical trials showing significant recovery from major depression (42m2s).
• Psilocybin has been found to increase resting state global connectivity in the brain, allowing more areas to communicate with each other, which is similar to the brain activity during rapid eye movement sleep (43m13s).
• The increase in brainwide connectivity caused by psilocybin raises questions about its potential benefits, as it seems counterintuitive to the typical process of brain development, where connections are pruned to reduce energy consumption (43m41s).
• In brain development, especially during the first two years of life, new synapses are formed, and then pruned to eliminate unnecessary connections and reduce energy consumption (44m37s).
• As people age, the pruning process slows down, but doesn't stop, resulting in a loss of connectivity, although old memories remain intact because they were formed when the brain was younger (45m30s).
• The human experience involves increasing connectivity and communication between different brain areas, but it's unclear whether this is the primary goal of learning and development, or if the brain becomes more modular and segregated over time (44m14s).
• The process of learning new skills, such as tennis or singing, involves increasing connectivity and communication between different brain areas, which is similar to the effects of psilocybin on the brain (43m55s).

Tool: ‘Learning How to Learn’ Course (45m58s)

• The foundation of learning is not a one-way process, and even as adults, people can learn new things, although not as quickly as they used to, (45m58s).
• Research by Barbara Oakley showed that the peak demographic for benefiting from learning is between 25 to 35 years old, (46m25s).
• A course called "Learning How to Learn" was created, initially aimed at high school and college students, but it turned out that very few students took the course, (46m46s).
• The course is now popular among people aged 25-35, who have gone to college and are in the workforce, needing to learn new skills, (47m13s).
• The course is designed to help people boost their learning efficiency, even if their brain is not learning as quickly as it used to, (47m55s).
• The course is free, consists of bite-sized videos lasting about 10 minutes each, and has around 50-60 videos over the course of one month, (48m16s).
• The course includes tests, quizzes, and forums where students can discuss with others and ask questions, (48m27s).
• The course is available to anyone in the world, and people from different backgrounds, such as housewives in India, have benefited from it, (48m36s).
• The course has a 98% approval rate and is designed to teach people how to acquire knowledge and deal with challenges such as exam anxiety and procrastination, (49m2s).
• The course does not teach specific knowledge or math vocabulary but rather focuses on teaching people how to learn, (49m9s).

Learning, Generational Differences, Technology, Social Media (49m36s)

• There is a decrease in procedural practice-based learning, such as memorizing times tables and division, in schools, particularly in California, which can be a concern for building a strong foundation in learning (49m49s).
• Procedural practice-based learning is essential for building on previously learned concepts and implementing functions, and it helps in developing problem-solving skills (50m4s).
• The brain needs both procedural practice-based learning and understanding of concepts to really grasp knowledge and implement it (50m44s).
• With the advancement of technology, some skills, such as reading a paper map or doing calculations, may no longer be required, and it can be argued that the brain space and activity can be devoted to learning new forms of knowledge (50m56s).
• However, relying solely on technology can lead to a loss of intuition and basic understanding of concepts, such as order of magnitude, if the procedural system is not in place (53m8s).
• The use of tools like calculators can make certain tasks easier and more accurate, but it is essential to have a good understanding of the underlying concepts to use these tools effectively (52m33s).
• It is crucial to discern what is essential to learn and what is not, to build a brain capable of learning the maximum number of things, especially in an uncertain future (51m50s).
• For those who did not learn certain things in their formal education, it is essential to learn how to learn and build a strong foundation in learning (52m9s).
• The use of AI in creative tasks, such as songwriting, raises questions about what it means to be a musician or songwriter, and whether the creative process is the same when assisted by technology (53m27s).
• The brain's ability to learn and adapt changes with age, with younger brains being more malleable and able to take in new information more easily (54m22s).
• Manual skills, such as typing with thumbs, can be learned at any age, but are typically mastered more quickly and easily when learned early in life (55m0s).
• The widespread use of technology, particularly social media, has become a ubiquitous part of daily life, with many people constantly checking their phones, even in situations where they could be experiencing and appreciating their surroundings (55m52s).
• The brain can become highly skilled at using technology, but this can also lead to fatigue and decreased agility when trying to learn new technologies later in life (56m32s).
• Engaging in activities on a phone can be fatiguing, whereas activities like reading a paper book or writing on a laptop or desktop computer can be sustained for longer periods without feeling fatigued (56m40s).
• Social media can be mentally draining, causing fatigue that is not typically experienced with physical activities like sprints or deadlifts (56m54s).
• The brain's foundation, built through early learning experiences, plays a significant role in determining how easily new skills can be acquired later in life (57m24s).
• Foundational knowledge and skills learned at a young age can make certain tasks easier, while those not learned until later may require more cognitive effort (57m30s).
• Engaging in procedural-based activities, such as reading and then practicing a skill, can help build a strong foundation for learning (57m51s).
• Not having a foundation in social media, due to not using it at a young age, can make it feel like an energy drain and require more cognitive effort to use effectively (58m13s).
• Younger people who grew up with social media may not experience the same level of fatigue, as their brains have adapted to it from an early age (57m15s).
• The brain's ability to adapt and learn new skills can be influenced by the foundation built through early experiences and learning (58m27s).

Sponsors: LMNT & Joovv (58m37s)

• LMNT is an electrolyte drink that contains sodium, magnesium, and potassium in the correct ratios, but no sugar, making it essential for optimal brain and body function, especially since even slight dehydration can significantly diminish cognitive and physical performance (58m37s).
• Proper hydration and adequate amounts of electrolytes are crucial, and drinking a packet of LMNT dissolved in water can ensure the right balance of hydration and electrolytes (59m2s).
• To maintain proper hydration and electrolyte levels, one can dissolve a packet of LMNT in 16 to 32 ounces of water and drink it first thing in the morning, and also during physical exercise, especially on hot days (59m15s).
• LMNT comes in various flavors, including watermelon, raspberry, and citrus, and a sample pack can be claimed with the purchase of any LMNT drink mix at drinklmnt.com/huberman (59m38s).
• Joovv makes medical-grade red light therapy devices that have been shown to have positive effects on improving cellular and organ health, including faster muscle recovery, improved skin health, and wound healing (59m54s).
• Joovv lights use clinically proven wavelengths of red light and near-infrared light to trigger optimal cellular adaptations, and they are available in various forms, including whole-body panels and handheld lights (1h0m28s).
• Joovv is offering Black Friday discounts of up to $1,300 through December 2nd, 2024, and up to $300 off select products can be claimed at jv.com/huberman (1h0m50s).

Draining Experiences, AI & Social Media (1h1m6s)

• A technical writer from the New York Times used ChatGPT for a month to help with writing articles and initially found it draining, but when she started treating it like a human being and being polite, she began getting better answers (1h1m26s).
• Treating ChatGPT like a human being allows it to mirror the user's behavior, and if the user treats it like a machine, it will respond accordingly (1h2m54s).
• When the writer started treating ChatGPT like a human, she found that she was no longer fatigued at the end of the day, as her brain was wired to interact with humans in a certain way and didn't require extra effort (1h3m10s).
• The brain has circuits that are designed for human interaction, and using these circuits when interacting with AI like ChatGPT can be beneficial (1h3m30s).
• Social media can provide both valuable information and entertaining content, such as a video of a baby raccoon popping bubbles, which can be delightful but may also be trivial (1h4m1s).
• However, social media can also have detrimental effects, such as altering the way people argue and interact with each other, as it often involves giving compliments, hearts, thumbs down, or engaging in arguments in a way that is not natural for human interaction (1h4m26s).
• Online interactions can feel either invigorating or depleting, and this may be due to the limitations of digital communication, such as the inability to fully explain oneself or understand others, which can be frustrating for those who value face-to-face or phone dialogue (1h4m50s).
• The concept of energy, in a scientific sense, is crucial, as humans have a finite amount of energy, and understanding this concept can help explain why people tend to feel more tired as they get older (1h5m58s).
• The idea of a "template" neural system, developed in childhood, influences how people respond to different experiences, finding some invigorating and others depleting, and this concept is related to the notion of energy (1h5m46s).
• The finite amount of energy people have is a key consideration, and understanding this can help individuals manage their energy levels and avoid feeling drained (1h6m4s).
• The concept of energy was also discussed by Ben Barres, a former colleague, who wondered why people tend to feel more tired as they get older, despite sleeping well, highlighting the importance of understanding energy in a scientific context (1h6m8s).

Vigor & Aging, Continued Learning, Tool: Exercise & Mitochondrial Function (1h6m52s)

• As people age, they seem to have less energy, but some individuals manage to maintain an active life, and understanding how to improve learning using neuroscience and AI can be beneficial for people of all ages (1h6m52s).
• Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) are a way for people to access knowledge from experts worldwide, and they have been around since they started at Stanford, with companies like Cera offering lectures on various subjects (1h8m2s).
• MOOCs aim to help people with learning, which becomes more difficult and depletes energy as people get older, making it essential to find ways to improve learning and maintain energy levels (1h8m47s).
• The mitochondrian, a physical power plant in cells, supplies energy in the form of ATP, which is essential for cellular operations, but as people age, their mitochondria become less efficient and fewer in number (1h9m6s).
• Exercise is the best way to replenish energy, as it benefits every organ in the body, including the heart, brain, and immune system, making it the cheapest and most effective "drug" for overall health (1h9m54s).
• Regular exercise can help rejuvenate the brain, and it is essential for maintaining energy levels and overall health, with activities like running and climbing stairs being beneficial for both physical and mental well-being (1h10m23s).
• Engaging in physical activities such as hiking can help maintain an active lifestyle and build energy reserves for older age, with the more energy reserves put away, the better off one is in the long run (1h10m41s).
• A study conducted in China on the onset of Alzheimer's disease found that individuals with little to no education had an earlier onset of the disease, while those with advanced education had a later onset (1h11m12s).
• The study involved three populations: peasants with almost no education, individuals with high school education, and those with advanced education, showing a correlation between education level and Alzheimer's onset (1h11m32s).
• The difference in Alzheimer's onset among the groups is interesting, as the genetic differences are presumed to be minimal, given that all participants were Chinese (1h11m56s).
• One possible explanation for the correlation is that exercising the brain through education builds cognitive reserve, which can be drawn upon later in life (1h12m6s).
• The concept of cognitive reserve suggests that the more one exercises their brain, the more reserve they have later in life, which may help delay the onset of Alzheimer's disease (1h12m12s).

Tool: Cognitive Velocity; Quick Stressors, Mitochondria (1h12m17s)

• Cognitive velocity refers to the ideal pace for learning, which is faster than the default reflexive pace but still allows for retention of information, and finding this sweet spot can be useful for effective learning (1h12m19s).
• This concept was learned through experiences with skateboarding and soccer, where it was found that learning is easier when going at a slightly faster pace than what one is comfortable with (1h13m38s).
• Applying this concept to reading and listening involves adjusting the pace to engage cognitively and retain information, rather than just going with the reflexive pace (1h14m11s).
• Social media can be detrimental to learning as it trains the brain to be slow, passive, and multicontext, making it harder to engage in learning unless something is highly salient (1h14m46s).
• Engaging in learning and maintaining cognitive velocity is important, as it taps into the mitochondrial system, which is linked to the energy of the brain and body (1h15m11s).
• Stress, in the form of short intervals of high intensity, can be beneficial for the brain and body, similar to how cognitive intervals can be beneficial for learning (1h15m27s).
• Maintaining intellectual and physical vigor is important, and below a certain threshold, it can be hard to come back and exercise or learn without getting depleted or injured (1h16m47s).
• Mitochondrial systems are linked to the energy of the brain and body, and maintaining a certain level of activity is necessary to avoid depletion or injury (1h16m39s).

AI, Imagined Futures, Possibilities (1h16m58s)

• A free resource called "Learning to Learn" is available for everyone to improve their learning skills, and it's highly recommended for young people to take this course. (1h17m6s)
• Younger people tend to pick up new technologies, including AI, faster than older people, and they're already learning how to use AI tools. (1h17m33s)
• AI is just a tool that people need to learn how to use, and it's essential to know where to start when exploring AI for learning and knowledge. (1h17m51s)
• Claude AI is a suggested alternative to ChatGPT, which provides answers in a bullet-pointed format that's easy to transfer into one's brain or onto a page. (1h18m35s)
• To explore AI for the sake of getting smarter, learning knowledge, or having fun, people can start by trying out different chatbots, such as ChatGPT or Google's Gemini, to find the one that feels most comfortable. (1h19m1s)
• Some AI models are better at math than others, and Google's Gemini has shown significant improvement in math problems, going from 20% to 80% correct, which is comparable to human performance. (1h19m56s)
• Large language models like ChatGPT should not be compared to the best humans but rather to the average human, as most people couldn't pass challenging tests like the LSAT or MCAT. (1h20m36s)
• There's a possibility of using existing AI large language models to imagine future states and outcomes, allowing them to forage into future possibilities that humans are not yet aware of. (1h21m11s)
• Harnessing knowledge and exploring different outcomes is a better approach than trying to travel back in time, and AI can facilitate this by providing different scenarios and gathering information from large language models (1h21m19s).
• Unlike humans, large language models can be instructed to work continuously for extended periods without rest or attention to health, allowing them to forage for knowledge under various scenarios (1h22m6s).
• The development of learning algorithms for neural network models has come a long way since the 1980s, with pioneers like Jeff Hinton and the speaker collaborating on projects like the Boltzmann Machine (1h22m26s).
• In the past, AI was dominated by symbol processing, rules, and logic, requiring different computer programs for each problem, which was human resource-intensive and slow-going (1h22m57s).
• The computer vision community struggled to write a program for vision, despite efforts, but nature has solved these problems, and studying how animals and insects see can provide insights (1h23m21s).
• The brain differs from digital computers in that it has special-purpose hardware that allows it to run specific programs with limited neuroplasticity, unlike the human brain, which has magnificent neuroplasticity to customize to a world of experience (1h23m46s).
• Flies have limited neuroplasticity, which allows them to survive for 24 hours, but they do not have the capacity for complex behaviors like building technology or forming intricate relationships (1h24m0s).
• Despite the limitations of flies, they have contributed to the understanding of algorithms, such as direction selectivity in the visual system, and are still an important area of study (1h24m50s).
• The human brain's plasticity is a key limitation and a reason why humans are the curators of the earth, allowing for the creation of creatures that can survive and adapt to increasingly complex environments (1h25m1s).
• Certain algorithms present in the fly brain, such as classical conditioning, are also found in the human brain, demonstrating that learning can be studied across various species (1h25m24s).
• The algorithm of temporal difference learning, which is part of the value function, is present in both the fly brain and the human brain, highlighting the potential for learning from simpler organisms (1h25m45s).
• Studying simpler organisms, such as flies and honeybees, can provide valuable insights into the algorithms that govern learning and behavior, as seen in the example of caffeine's effect on honeybees' pollination behavior (1h26m0s).
• The study of simpler organisms can help identify the fundamental algorithms that underlie learning and behavior, which can then be applied to more complex systems, including artificial intelligence (1h26m21s).
• The idea of creating AI versions of brains that can make extrapolations into the future is a promising area of research, with potential applications in various fields (1h27m1s).

AI & Mapping Potential Options, Schizophrenia (1h27m14s)

• The potential of AI lies in its ability to forage information at a large scale and around the circadian clock, which is not possible for humans due to their biological limitations and the need for sleep, (1h27m14s).
• Computers can work continuously, providing a portal into the future and bringing back potential routes to take, which can be beneficial in exploring diverse options, (1h27m50s).
• A good example of AI's potential is in the treatment of schizophrenia, an area where there is still no cure, but AI can help explore potential routes by analyzing large amounts of data, (1h28m31s).
• Schizophrenia was initially thought to be a disruption of the dopamine system, but recent research suggests that metabolic health, including diet and exercise, may also play a role in the development of the disease, (1h28m40s).
• Researchers like Chris Palmer at Harvard have founded the field of metabolic psychiatry, which explores the connection between metabolic health and brain function, and have found that ketogenic diets may be beneficial in treating schizophrenia, (1h29m1s).
• AI can be used to forage data in the field of metabolic psychiatry and come up with hypothesized clinical trials that may lead to new treatments for schizophrenia, (1h29m40s).
• The use of AI in this field can provide a window into what might be happening or is likely to happen, and can help researchers explore new options that may not have been possible to consider before, (1h30m35s).
• The potential of AI in the treatment of schizophrenia is significant, and it is likely that if large language models had been available 20 years ago, researchers would have known that ketamine could be a beneficial drug for treating the disease, (1h30m43s).

Schizophrenia, Ketamine, Depression (1h30m56s)

• Schizophrenia is a complex condition that involves more than just psychosis and hearing voices, and it is something that appears in late adolescence or early adulthood, but it is actually a genetic problem that starts during early development (1h31m4s).
• Research on identical twins shows that if one twin is destined to be schizophrenic, the probability of the other twin also being schizophrenic is high, indicating a strong genetic component (1h31m43s).
• Ketamine, a party drug and anesthetic, can induce a temporary form of schizophrenia-like psychosis in some individuals, characterized by symptoms such as auditory hallucinations, paranoia, and disconnection from reality (1h33m0s).
• Ketamine binds to NMDA receptors, which are important for learning and memory, and reduces the strength of inhibitory circuits in the brain, leading to increased excitation and activity in the cortex (1h33m52s).
• The glutamate hypothesis suggests that an imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory systems in the cortex may be the underlying cause of schizophrenia, and NMDA receptors play a key role in this imbalance (1h34m54s).
• Despite its ability to induce psychosis, ketamine has been found to be effective in treating severe clinical depression, possibly by increasing excitatory activity in parts of the cortex that are underactive in depressed individuals (1h35m19s).
• The mechanism of ketamine's effect on depression is thought to involve titrating the level of excitation in the brain to bring it back into balance, effectively "fighting depression with a touch of schizophrenia" (1h35m34s).
• Understanding the mechanisms underlying psychiatric disorders like schizophrenia and depression can help in developing new treatments and solutions, and large language models may be able to contribute to this understanding (1h36m10s).

AI, “Idea Pump,” Analyzing Research (1h36m15s)

• The concept of leveraging large language models to improve learning and make predictions about existing knowledge is explored, considering how these models would have been used in the past with 2024 AI technology in 1998 (1h36m16s).
• In 1998, the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia was widely accepted, and the role of glutamate was not well understood, but large language models may have been able to discover the importance of ketamine and its similarity to PCP, which binds to the NMDA receptor (1h36m46s).
• The potential of large language models to make predictions and identify incorrect information is discussed, with the example of Rusty Gage's discovery of new neurons being born in the hippocampus of adults, which challenged existing textbook knowledge (1h37m37s).
• Research by Rusty Gage and the speaker found that exercise increases neurogenesis, and a cancer drug was shown to promote the growth of new cells in the adult brain (1h38m0s).
• The use of large language models as an "idea pump" for generating new experiment ideas is discussed, with Rusty Gage using these models to analyze existing experiments and literature to come up with new ideas (1h39m4s).
• A tool is mentioned that allows users to upload PDFs or URLs and ask questions, with the AI generating answers based on the content, making it a potentially useful resource for learning and research (1h40m1s).
• A tool can be used to analyze and reference various sources of information, such as PDFs and websites, allowing users to ask more sophisticated questions and receive detailed answers based on the provided information (1h40m21s).
• The tool can evaluate the rigor of research papers based on factors such as subject number and the strength of findings, although the latter is a subjective measure that typically requires expertise in the field (1h40m42s).
• The tool can critique the statistics used in research papers and explain why certain papers may be more or less interesting than others, ultimately weighing the evidence to provide a more comprehensive understanding (1h41m24s).
• By analyzing a set of research papers, the tool can hypothesize what would happen in a given scenario and even predict the future based on the provided information, a task that would typically require a significant amount of time and expertise from a professor (1h41m40s).
• The tool's ability to quickly analyze and provide insights from a large amount of information makes it a valuable resource for learning and research, potentially surpassing the capabilities of human experts in certain areas (1h42m0s).

AI, Medicine & Diagnostic Tool; Predicting Outcomes (1h42m11s)

• A study in Nature on dermatology used AI to identify skin lesions, with both expert doctors and AI achieving around 90% accuracy, but when doctors used AI as an assistant, their accuracy increased to 98% (1h42m12s).
• The AI had access to more data, allowing it to identify rare lesions, while doctors had in-depth knowledge of common lesions, demonstrating the benefits of combining human and AI expertise (1h42m55s).
• Using AI as a tool for discovery, with experts interpreting and analyzing data, could be the future of science, as humans and AI have different strengths and weaknesses that complement each other (1h43m24s).
• This partnership between humans and AI could lead to breakthroughs in understanding and discovering treatments for neurological illnesses, as well as predicting and preventing large-scale catastrophes (1h44m15s).
• AI can analyze real-time data from various sources, such as cameras and cars, to predict accidents and potentially prevent them by taking control of vehicles (1h44m34s).
• Researchers have already used AI to predict the trajectory of hurricanes with greater accuracy than traditional methods, by feeding the AI with historical data and simulations (1h45m24s).
• This technology has the potential to be applied to other areas, such as predicting physical events in the world, and could have a significant impact on various fields, including science, medicine, and transportation (1h45m26s).
• The distinction between knowledge acquisition and implementation is crucial, with AI being capable of learning facts and solving problem sets, but still struggling with physical action, although it is expected to improve in this area (1h46m27s).
• AI can acquire knowledge, solve problem sets, and make predictions about the future by processing data about prior and current events, which could be useful in various fields (1h47m21s).
• The increase in autism diagnoses has been a challenging problem for neuroscientists, the medical field, and the general public, but AI might be able to provide new solutions and treatments by analyzing complex data (1h47m53s).
• The use of AI in addressing complex diseases like autism depends on the quality and complexity of the data available, but it has the potential to make significant progress and save lives (1h48m23s).
• Despite the flaws and regulatory problems associated with AI, its promise is substantial, and it is essential to push forward with its development to help people and improve their lives (1h48m45s).
• The current state of AI is comparable to the early days of flight, with significant achievements having been made, but much improvement still needed, particularly in control and direction (1h49m16s).
• The development of AI is expected to continue, with potential breakthroughs in various fields, and its impact could be substantial, much like the Wright brothers' achievement in flight (1h49m30s).

Parkinson’s Disease; Cognitive Velocity & Variables; Amphetamines (1h50m4s)

• Parkinson's disease is a degenerative disease that leads to difficulty in smooth movement, cognitive dysfunction, and mood-based issues due to the depletion of dopamine neurons in the brain stem, which are responsible for procedural learning and play a crucial role in learning sequences of actions for survival (1h50m4s).
• Dopamine cells are vulnerable to environmental insults, such as toxins like pesticides, which can cause them to die and lead to Parkinson's symptoms (1h51m14s).
• Before treatment with L-DOPA, a dopamine precursor, people with Parkinson's often became immobile and didn't move, but when they received L-DOPA, they suddenly started talking again (1h51m41s).
• When people with Parkinson's start talking again after receiving L-DOPA, they report that during the "locked-in" phase, they think they're moving fast, but in reality, they're moving slowly, indicating a set point issue (1h52m53s).
• The brain confabulates answers when people with Parkinson's are asked about their experience during the "locked-in" phase, and they often report that they didn't have enough energy or couldn't initiate actions (1h53m36s).
• Cognitive velocity, or the speed at which the brain processes information, may be linked to physical velocity, and this concept encompasses much of what we try to do when we learn (1h53m56s).
• The relationship between cognitive velocity and physical velocity is still not fully understood, but it's an area of interest, particularly in relation to learning and sleep (1h54m8s).
• Cognitive velocity, or the speed at which the brain processes information, varies throughout the day and is influenced by factors such as sleep, body temperature, and circadian rhythm (1h54m13s).
• During rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, cognitive velocity is very fast, and time perception is different than in slow-wave sleep (1h54m17s).
• Brain states during sleep are better understood than wakeful brain states, such as focus, motivation, and flow, which are not scientific terms but are commonly used (1h54m33s).
• Noticing and thinking about cognitive velocity at different times of the day can help identify periods of high productivity, which for some people may be early to late morning and again in the evening (1h55m7s).
• Cognitive velocity can be influenced by factors such as caffeine, stress, and body temperature, with some people experiencing a natural dip in energy and cognitive ability in the afternoon (1h55m29s).
• Core body temperature may be related to cognitive velocity, with lower temperatures potentially corresponding to lower energy and ability (1h56m24s).
• The temperature of the environment, such as the temperature of a room, may also impact cognitive velocity, with a temperature of 75 degrees Fahrenheit being considered optimal (1h56m31s).
• The Q10 effect, which describes how enzyme activity changes with temperature, may play a role in the relationship between body temperature and cognitive velocity (1h56m57s).
• Research by Craig Heller, a biologist at Stanford, has shown that enzymatic control over pyruvate is influenced by temperature and can impact muscular failure (1h57m20s).
• Research has shown that it's possible to bypass limitations and change temperature locally in the brain to improve cognitive velocity, which is a different world from just thinking about using a drug to increase energy, focus, and alertness (1h57m58s).
• Increasing dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine (catacolamines) through drugs can increase energy, focus, and alertness, but it also leads to a proportional trough in these areas once the drug wears off (1h58m16s).
• Amphetamines are a good example of this, where users may feel like they're accomplishing more, but in reality, they don't actually accomplish that much more (1h58m31s).
• There is a pressing question about the long-term consequences of using stimulants like Riddlin, Adderal, and Vyance on cognition in young brains that have been weaned on these substances (1h58m51s).
• Millions of kids have been raised on these stimulants, effectively being given "speed" to activate their brains, but the consequence is that when the drug wears off, they have no energy and are completely spent (1h59m17s).
• This can lead to a spiral where users take more of the drug to avoid the energy crash, which is a significant problem (1h59m40s).

Free Will; Large Language Model (LLM), Personalities & Learning (1h59m49s)

• The integration of computation, math, computers, and AI is transforming the way we approach biological and psychological problems, as well as daily challenges, and has also shed light on the importance of mitochondria and how to replenish them (1h59m51s).
• Consciousness and Free Will are complex topics that are often discussed in a more philosophical than neurobiological context, with some people, like Kevin Mitchell, believing in Free Will, and others, like Robert Sapolsky, not believing in it (2h0m15s).
• The concept of Free Will did not exist in the same way 500 years ago, during the Middle Ages, where people believed in Fate, attributing events to external forces rather than their own actions (2h0m48s).
• Words like Free Will, Consciousness, intelligence, and understanding are considered "weasel words" because they lack clear definitions that everyone can agree on, making it challenging to solve scientific problems related to these concepts (2h1m41s).
• The controversy surrounding whether large language models truly understand language highlights our limited understanding of what it means to understand something, and there is currently no reliable measure to assess someone's understanding (2h2m4s).
• The comparison of human understanding to that of large language models like chatGPT suggests that there may be a continuum, but it is unlikely to be exactly the same (2h2m29s).
• The diversity among humans is significant, and there are individuals who exhibit unusual patterns of speech and behavior, making it challenging to define what is considered "normal" or "human-like" (2h3m8s).
• Research has been conducted on fine-tuning large language models (LLMs) with data from individuals with different disorders, such as autism and sociopathy, to see how they behave and process information (2h4m24s).
• This research has shown that LLMs can be trained to mimic the behavior of individuals with certain disorders, raising questions about the potential to train LLMs with different political leanings or values (2h4m50s).
• The idea of creating an LLM that can understand and integrate the differences in human behavior and perception is an interesting one, and could potentially be achieved by training the model on data from a diverse range of human individuals (2h7m4s).
• LLMs do not have a single persona, but can adopt different personas based on the input they receive and the expectations of the user (2h7m24s).
• The ability of LLMs to adopt different personas can be useful in explaining complex information in a way that is accessible to different audiences, such as explaining a technical paper to a 10-year-old (2h7m46s).
• Human behavior and perception can vary greatly from person to person, with some people being more sensitive to tone and emotional cues, and others being more focused on the content of words (2h5m56s).
• This variability is a natural part of human biology and is important for diversity and adaptability, and could potentially be replicated in an LLM (2h6m33s).
• The idea of creating an LLM that can understand and integrate the differences in human behavior and perception is an interesting one, and could potentially be achieved by training the model on data from a diverse range of human individuals (2h7m4s).
• A recent interaction with a large language model (LLM) on a platform like ChatGPT or Claude showed that the AI took a break from answering questions and started looking at pictures of landscapes, similar to how a cognitively fatigued person might behave, indicating a sign of a real generative internal model (2h8m15s).
• This behavior is fascinating because it shows that LLMs can imagine things that aren't there, similar to the human brain, but it's still different from human brains in that it doesn't have continuous self-generated thoughts (2h9m14s).
• Human brains are always generating internal thoughts, even in the absence of sensory stimulation, and this self-generated thought is critical for shaping knowledge and experience (2h9m48s).
• LLMs are not yet capable of self-generated internal activity, but researchers are working on understanding how this is done in the human brain and how to replicate it in AI (2h10m41s).
• The ability to integrate information over a long period, such as during a lecture, and use long-term memory to come up with insights is not yet fully understood in neuroscience, but LLMs have shown the ability to do something similar through in-context learning (2h11m48s).
• Traditional working memory, which is studied in neuroscience, is only capable of holding information for a few seconds, but long-term working memory, which allows us to remember information over a long period, is not yet fully understood (2h11m34s).
• Researchers are working on understanding how the human brain is able to remember and integrate information over a long period, and how to replicate this ability in LLMs (2h11m1s).
• Artificial intelligence systems without plasticity learn at the beginning through training data and then perform inference tasks, such as processing one word after the next in a fast loop of activity, with no further learning (2h12m0s).
• Despite the absence of plasticity, these systems seem to improve over time, especially in context-dependent learning, which is a phenomenon that is not yet fully understood (2h12m22s).
• The underlying mechanisms of this improvement are still a mystery, and it is also unclear how humans achieve similar improvements in learning and performance (2h12m36s).

Tool: Idea Generation, Mind Wandering, Learning (2h12m40s)

• Meditation and reduced sensory input can stimulate ideas and thoughts, with activities such as walking or jogging being effective in increasing serotonin levels and promoting idea generation (2h13m9s).
• Taking notes, such as voice memos, can help capture ideas that come up during these activities, with some of them potentially leading to successful outcomes (2h13m36s).
• Running or engaging in steady-paced activities can be a form of meditation, allowing the mind to focus on its own thoughts without distractions (2h13m47s).
• The concept of "wordlessness" involves creating conditions for minimal sensory input, allowing the brain to idle and go nonlinear, which can be a source of great ideas and creativity (2h14m14s).
• Mind wandering, or the act of letting the mind think nonlinearly without structured thoughts, has been studied by psychologists and is often associated with "aha" moments and great ideas (2h14m56s).
• Social media and constant phone use may have reduced the opportunities for mind wandering, which can occur during activities such as walking or doing chores (2h15m30s).
• When faced with a difficult concept or problem, taking a break and engaging in a different activity can help clear the mind and lead to a solution (2h16m14s).
• The brain's ability to work through problems in the background, even when not actively thinking about them, can lead to breakthroughs and new ideas (2h16m35s).
• Some people are naturally good at intuiting solutions to problems because of their experiences, but everyone can improve their learning and problem-solving skills by utilizing their brain's ability to process information during sleep (2h16m50s).
• Many individuals who have made significant contributions in their fields often report struggling with a problem at night, only to wake up in the morning with a clear solution, demonstrating the importance of sleep in clarifying unclear thoughts (2h17m3s).
• The brain works on problems during sleep, making it essential to think about the issue before going to bed, rather than engaging in unrelated activities like watching TV, to maximize the brain's problem-solving capabilities (2h17m42s).
• Utilizing the time before falling asleep to think about a problem or something that needs to be understood can help the brain process the information and provide clarity in the morning (2h17m56s).
• Once the brain's workings are understood, individuals can take advantage of this knowledge to improve their learning and problem-solving skills, such as re-reading a paper before sleep and waking up with a clearer understanding of the material (2h18m13s).

Dreams, Unconscious, Types of Dreams (2h18m18s)

• Dreams are still not completely understood, and there is no good theory on why people dream or what a particular dream signifies for an individual (2h18m43s).
• During rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, neuromodulators are downregulated, but acetylcholine, a powerful neuromodulator, increases, which is important for attention (2h19m15s).
• In REM sleep, the prefrontal cortex, which interprets sensory input, is not fully active, resulting in bizarre and unmonitored visual experiences (2h19m24s).
• Blocking REM sleep with certain sleeping pills can cause problems with normal cognitive function, and cannabis use can lead to a REM rebound and increased dreaming after cessation (2h19m53s).
• The brain's adjustment to endocannabinoid levels during cannabis use can cause an imbalance, leading to increased dreaming after stopping its use (2h20m26s).
• Researcher Alan Hobson proposed that dreams, particularly REM dreams, are similar to experiences on psychedelics like LSD or psilocybin, suggesting that dreams may reveal the unconscious mind (2h20m51s).
• Dreams can be seen as a "recession of the water line," where the unconscious mind is more active and the conscious mind has less control over thoughts and actions (2h21m24s).
• Testing the hypothesis that dreams reveal the unconscious mind would require putting someone in a scanner, administering psilocybin, and monitoring their brain activity during sleep (2h21m42s).
• There are two types of dreams: vivid, changing dreams during REM sleep, and repetitive, emotionally charged dreams during slow-wave sleep (2h22m18s).
• Slow-wave sleep dreams often feature heavy emotional content and can repeat over and over throughout a person's life (2h22m39s).

Future Projects, Brain & Self-Attention (2h22m56s)

• The NIH has a Pioneer award that looks for big ideas with huge impact, and a recent submission for this award is titled "A Temporal Context in Brains and Transformers" which explores the connection between the brain's ability to understand temporal context and the Transformer AI architecture (2h23m26s).
• The Transformer AI architecture is a deep learning architecture that uses self-attention to connect words that are far apart in a sequence and understand their association, allowing it to learn temporal context (2h24m3s).
• Self-attention is a unique part of the Transformer architecture that enables it to understand the association between words and figure out which word a pronoun refers to, even if it's far apart in the sentence (2h24m12s).
• The Transformer AI architecture can be trained on a large dataset of words and can learn to predict the next word in a sentence, building an internal semantic representation of the words and their associations (2h25m42s).
• As the Transformer is trained on more data, it can build a more complex internal model of the meaning of sentences, forming associations between words and creating an internal representation of the outside world (2h26m31s).
• The Transformer's ability to form an internal model of the meaning of sentences is similar to how the brain understands language, and exploring this connection could lead to new insights into how the brain processes language (2h26m37s).
• The idea of temporal context in brains and Transformers is an exciting area of research that could have a huge impact on our understanding of language and intelligence (2h23m36s).
• The brain's ability to process and respond to information is being studied, with a focus on self-attention and how it is achieved in the brain, potentially involving the basil ganglia (2h27m7s).
• Research on traveling waves in the primate visual cortex, led by John Reynolds, is providing insights into how the cortex is organized and interacts with the basil ganglia (2h27m31s).
• Neuroscientists have traditionally studied different parts of the brain independently, but now need to integrate this knowledge to understand how the brain works as a whole (2h28m6s).
• A Pioneer proposal aims to bring together the puzzle pieces of brain function, including self-attention and the interaction between the cortex and basil ganglia, to gain a deeper understanding of brain organization and function (2h27m7s).
• The importance of public education and providing resources to learn how to learn better at zero cost is emphasized, with references to the book "Learning How to Learn" and other resources (2h28m52s).
• Practical tools and strategies for improving cognitive and physical function, including exercise and mitochondrial health, have been shared, with the goal of promoting longevity and overall well-being (2h29m11s).
• The value of science as a social endeavor, where researchers learn from each other and from their mistakes, is highlighted, and the importance of collaboration and progress in scientific research is emphasized (2h30m17s).
• The individual being addressed is commended for their ability to express scientific concepts in a clear manner that resonates with the public, a skill that is highly valued as it helps to disseminate knowledge beyond closed doors (2h30m48s).
• The person is encouraged to continue their work, as their talent for communication is essential in making science accessible to a broader audience (2h30m55s).
• The individual expresses gratitude for the kind words, considering it a labor of love to share knowledge with others and appreciates the opportunity to engage in the discussion (2h31m22s).
• An invitation is extended for the individual to return for another discussion, which is met with a positive response (2h31m31s).

Zero-Cost Support, YouTube, Spotify & Apple Follow & Reviews, Sponsors, YouTube Feedback, Protocols Book, Social Media, Neural Network Newsletter (2h31m39s)

• To find links to Dr. Terry Sejnowski's work and his new book, please see the show note captions (2h31m40s).
• Subscribing to the YouTube channel is a zero-cost way to support the podcast, and following the podcast on Spotify and Apple is also appreciated (2h31m55s).
• Leaving a five-star review on Spotify and Apple is another way to support the podcast (2h32m3s).
• Checking out the sponsors mentioned throughout the episode is the best way to support the podcast (2h32m8s).
• Questions or comments about the podcast or guests can be left in the comment section on YouTube (2h32m17s).
• A new book titled "Protocols: An Operating Manual for the Human Body" is now available for pre-sale at protocolsbook.com, covering protocols for sleep, exercise, stress control, focus, and motivation (2h32m23s).
• The book is based on over 30 years of research and experience and provides scientific substantiation for the included protocols (2h32m30s).
• Links to various vendors can be found at protocolsbook.com, allowing readers to choose their preferred vendor (2h32m50s).
• Following Huberman Lab on social media platforms, including Instagram, X (formerly Twitter), Threads, Facebook, and LinkedIn, provides access to science and science-related tools (2h33m2s).
• The Neural Network Newsletter is a zero-cost monthly newsletter that includes podcast summaries and protocols in the form of brief 1-3 page PDFs, covering topics such as deliberate heat exposure, deliberate cold exposure, and optimizing sleep and dopamine (2h33m26s).
• To subscribe to the newsletter, go to hubmanlab.com, scroll down to the newsletter menu tab, and provide an email address, which will not be shared with anyone (2h33m49s).