The True Story Of History’s Greatest Philosopher - Donald Robertson

Introduction to Socrates

• Socrates is considered a unique individual who spent all day, every day, discussing the most important questions in life with people from all walks of life, including intellectuals, prostitutes, politicians, and slaves, making him the "Jimmy Hendrick of philosophizing" (1m31s).
• Despite the "Socratic problem," which questions the accuracy of the sources, Socrates' character shines through in Plato's dialogues, which are likely semi-fictional and embellished, but still convey his extraordinary capacity for thinking outside the box and spotting logical contradictions (2m6s).
• Socrates is seen as the "Godfather of modern self-help and self-improvement psychology" and the origin of cognitive behavioral therapy, with his radical ideas and methods still influencing modern psychotherapy (2m31s).
• The main sources of information about Socrates are Plato's 36 or 37 dialogues, which feature Socrates prominently, although it is assumed that Plato's approach changed over time, with his earlier works being more literal descriptions of Socrates and later works using Socrates as a mouthpiece for his own views (3m17s).

Socrates' Philosophy

• Socrates' way of doing philosophy is described as homely, down-to-earth, and focused on practical, everyday issues, in contrast to Plato's more metaphysical theories, such as the theory of forms (3m51s).
• Socrates' methods and ideas are still relevant today, and studying his philosophy can help identify and correct mistakes made in modern self-help and psychotherapy (3m0s).
• The writings of Plato and Xenophon, who were students of Socrates, provide valuable insights into Socrates' life and philosophy, with Plato's dialogues being particularly profound and moving pieces of literature in the Western canon (3m54s).
• Xenophon's dialogues are less well-known but offer a more down-to-earth perspective on Socrates, with around 30-40 shorter dialogues available (4m32s).
• A play by Aristophanes, written and performed during Socrates' lifetime, satirizes and ridicules Socrates, indicating that he was a famous figure during his time (4m48s).
• The anecdotal tradition, comprising a collection of anecdotes and quips about Socrates, provides additional information about his life and philosophy, although its reliability is more dubious (5m10s).
• The literary character of Socrates, as portrayed in these writings, would have influenced subsequent thinkers like Marcus Aurelius, who knew of Socrates through these writings (5m28s).
• Socrates' influence can be attributed to his unique approach to philosophy, which brought it down to earth and applied it to everyday matters, making it almost like a form of psychotherapy (6m6s).
• He would engage in conversations with people from various backgrounds, discussing topics like love, courage, and piety, and helping them to reframe their thoughts and overcome negative emotions (6m14s).
• The Socratic method, which involves questioning assumptions and using dialectic, was developed by Socrates and made him a controversial figure, as some people found it liberating while others found it embarrassing or humiliating (6m58s).
• Socrates' questioning of assumptions about morality and his method of dialectic led to him being seen as a threat to the existing power structures, ultimately contributing to his trial and execution (7m39s).
• The existing philosophical world that Socrates entered into was not well-defined, and he was not the first philosopher, but he was the first to bring philosophy down to earth and apply it to everyday matters (7m53s).

The Sophists and Natural Philosophers

• The first philosopher to bring philosophy "down to earth" was likely influenced by broader categories, but he is considered the first to do so in a practical sense (7m58s).
• The two main philosophical traditions that preceded him were the natural philosophers and the sophists, with Anaxagoras being a key figure in the former (8m14s).
• Anaxagoras was a natural philosopher from the Greek colonies in Ionia, which is now the coast of Turkey, and he tried to explain natural phenomena using physical descriptions (8m16s).
• Natural philosophers like Anaxagoras were precursors to modern science, but their ideas were also controversial as they challenged traditional superstitions (8m39s).
• Anaxagoras' ideas had a significant impact on society, as seen in the anecdote about Pericles, who used natural philosophy to calm his crew during an eclipse (9m35s).
• Anaxagoras was eventually placed on trial for impiety, which shows the risks that natural philosophers took by challenging traditional beliefs (10m33s).
• Socrates thought that Anaxagoras' philosophy did not teach wisdom, as it did not understand the nature of justice and injustice (10m42s).
• In contrast to Anaxagoras, Socrates exhibited courage in court and stood by his principles, showing the importance of understanding justice and injustice from a philosophical perspective (11m6s).
• The sophists, who emerged later, claimed to be wise and taught young men oratory, rhetoric, and how to become successful politicians and public speakers (11m27s).
• Protagoras was a key figure among the sophists, and Socrates knew him personally and questioned his ideas (11m50s).
• Socrates was concerned that the sophists were more focused on winning arguments than seeking the truth, and they spent little time figuring out what was in the best interest of society or what was just and unjust (12m12s).
• He believed that politicians who prioritize winning debates over understanding what is genuinely in the interests of individuals or society are like doctors who have never studied medicine (12m52s).
• Socrates had a love-hate relationship with the sophists, as he found their ideas interesting but lacking in depth, and he thought they prioritized appearances over truth (13m23s).

Socrates' Method

• The sophists would give speeches and teach people maxims, which Socrates believed was too passive and did not encourage critical thinking (13m36s).
• Socrates advocated for learning how to think for oneself, question things, and spot exceptions to general rules and principles, which is the foundation of the Socratic method (14m12s).
• The Socratic method emphasizes the importance of critical thinking and questioning, rather than simply memorizing phrases or rules (14m15s).
• Socrates' fundamental principle is that one must think for oneself, which is somewhat ironic given the title of a book about him, "How to Think Like Socrates" (14m26s).
• The details of Socrates' upbringing and introduction to philosophy are not well-documented, and the ancient texts provide contradictory or vague evidence (15m3s).
• The most famous explanation of Socrates' background is found in Plato's Apology, where he mentions his friend (15m19s).
• Chiron, a philosopher and friend of Socrates, visited the Delphi Oracle, a famous temple to the god Apollo, where the Priestess of Apollo would answer questions while in a trance, and asked if anyone was wiser than Socrates, to which the Oracle replied that no man is wiser than Socrates (16m10s).
• Socrates found this answer hard to accept and went around questioning the wisest people he could find to try and find evidence that there was indeed someone wiser than him (16m25s).
• He discovered that many of these people, including great philosophers and statesmen, often contradicted themselves when questioned, leading Socrates to believe that they were not wise despite their claims (16m49s).
• Socrates concluded that he was wiser than these individuals, not because he knew more, but because he recognized his own ignorance, whereas they falsely believed they were wise (17m15s).
• Socrates' method became focused on puncturing intellectual arrogance and double ignorance, highlighting the problem of people believing they know things they do not actually know (17m28s).
• He believed that ignorance was not a problem in itself, but rather the belief that one is knowledgeable when they are not, which can lead to mistakes and poor decision-making (17m51s).
• Socrates' method was seen as a kind of therapy for curing people of intellectual conceit, and it developed as a result of the Oracle's proclamation that no man is wiser than him (18m8s).
• Prior to developing this method, Socrates had studied natural philosophy and learned from other philosophers, but the Oracle's statement marked a turning point in his life and the development of his trademark method (18m14s).
• The influence of the sophists, who were prominent at the time, likely played a significant role in shaping Socrates' method, as he reacted against their shallow rhetoric and hypocrisy (18m50s).
• Socrates was concerned about the influence of the Sophists on Athenian politics, as they had a significant impact on the city-state's decision-making process, and he was friends with some powerful political figures, despite not being directly involved in politics himself (19m14s).
• Socrates' life was marked by dramatic events, including fighting in at least three major battles of the Peloponnesian War, surviving a terrible plague, and living through a dictatorship under the 30 Tyrants, which lasted 27 years (19m59s).
• His experiences as a soldier and living under different political regimes, including a brutal dictatorship, shaped his philosophy (20m33s).
• The Sophists played a significant role in Socrates' influences, partly due to their sway over the Athenian assembly and the political decisions being made (20m50s).
• The Socratic method is more about the process of learning to think and question things profoundly, rather than the acquisition of knowledge or having true opinions (21m10s).

Socrates' Life and Influences

• Socrates believed that real wisdom is a cognitive skill, and the goal of philosophy is an ongoing process of personal development, where one continually examines their life (21m32s).
• He famously said that "the unexamined life is not worth living," emphasizing the importance of self-reflection and personal growth (21m47s).
• Socrates' philosophy also touches on the concept of justice, where he questions the conventional definition of justice as helping friends and harming enemies, and instead implies that justice consists in helping friends and turning enemies into friends (22m15s).
• This idea is later explicitly stated by Plutarch, who says that Socrates believed in converting enemies into friends, rather than punishing or harming them (22m53s).
• Socrates believed that trying to harm enemies or friends can lead to missing out on opportunities to convert them into allies, and may even make them worse enemies, as seen in the downfall of Athens due to its aggressive and hawkish political leaders (23m12s).
• Socrates had various doctrines, but it's essential to be careful not to make them into rigid rules, as his teachings were often open to interpretation (24m1s).
• One of Socrates' sayings, as reported by Xenophon, was that people should "eat to live rather than live to eat," emphasizing the importance of thinking carefully about what is good for one's health beyond short-term pleasure and pain (24m18s).
• Socrates also believed in being genuine and authentic, saying "we should be as we wish to appear," and that it's better to become confident rather than just appearing confident (24m49s).
• He advised people to focus on becoming a good friend in reality rather than just seeming like one, highlighting the importance of authenticity over appearances (25m24s).
• Socrates emphasized the importance of action and repetition, saying "we are what we repeatedly do" and that excellence is not an act but a habit (25m52s).
• He believed that people often confuse appearance and reality, and that the sophists were guilty of neglecting reality in favor of appearances (26m12s).
• Socrates encouraged people to look beyond appearances and use reason to think more deeply about things, as he believed that people are often lazy and need to be challenged to question their assumptions (26m25s).
• Socrates engages in a conversation with a young man named Lles, asking him if his mother truly cares for him and if she has made sacrifices to help him, to which Lles admits that his mother has dedicated her life to helping him, but he finds her nagging annoying (26m48s).
• Socrates uses an analogy of actors in a theater to help Lles understand that his mother's words, although annoying, are not meant to harm him, and that he should look beyond his impression of her in those moments and think about her personality as a whole (27m16s).
• Socrates encourages Lles to use reason to think about who his mother really is and what their relationship is like, rather than focusing on the nagging, which might be a small part of her personality (28m1s).

Socrates' Teachings

• The Socratic method is a way of questioning and dialogue that Socrates uses to encourage critical thinking and to help people understand their own thoughts and assumptions (28m45s).
• The Socratic method involves asking people to define a concept, such as a virtue, and then questioning their definition to help them see the underlying assumptions and exceptions to the rule (29m10s).
• Socrates uses the method to dig deeper beneath the conversation and question the underlying premise or assumption, as seen in his conversation with Laches and Nicias, two Athenian generals, about the nature of courage (29m43s).
• In the conversation with Laches and Nicias, Socrates challenges their definition of courage as standing one's ground and remaining in formation in the face of the enemy, highlighting the importance of questioning assumptions and considering exceptions to the rule (30m2s).
• Socrates discusses the concept of courage, using the example of a soldier in a phalanx formation, where breaking formation puts oneself and others at risk, requiring a rigid formation for the strategy to work (30m32s).
• He argues that this definition of courage is too narrow, as it doesn't account for situations like tactical retreats or cavalry charges, where courage is still exhibited but in different ways (30m50s).
• Socrates challenges the idea that courage can only be defined by standing one's ground, using the example of the Spartans, who are renowned for their courage despite sometimes charging into the enemy like cavalry (31m13s).
• He encourages creative thinking and brainstorming, coming up with various scenarios to challenge the definition of courage, including what about this scenario, what about that scenario, and what about in civilian life (31m30s).
• Socrates' method of questioning often leads to a deeper understanding of the concept, but not always a clear conclusion, with his dialogues sometimes ending in aporia, a state of confusion or bewilderment (32m5s).
• He points out contradictions in people's thinking, highlighting inconsistencies in their arguments, which can help individuals spiral closer to the center of the meaning of concepts (32m51s).
• Socrates uses the example of a teenage boy, Kobis, to illustrate the concept of a good friend, where Kobis defines a good friend as someone who visits when sick, lends money, and gently corrects bad behavior (33m38s).
• Socrates questions a person about the qualities they look for in a friend, and the person admits they don't exhibit many of those qualities themselves, leading Socrates to point out the double standard and moral hypocrisy (33m56s).
• Socrates draws people's attention to the fact that they often exhibit moral double standards, and this is also addressed in modern cognitive therapy (34m45s).
• Making moral progress can be achieved by not being hypocrites and resolving contradictions, with reason helping to spot those contradictions (35m6s).
• The Socratic method involves questioning one's own standards and can lead to progress in morality and self-improvement by avoiding untruths and moving closer to truth (35m35s).
• Socrates' approach is not about providing a better approach but rather pointing out potential problems, which can be seen as annoying but is actually a way of refining one's thoughts (36m25s).
• From a psychological perspective, Socrates' method can be seen as a way of analyzing and refining coping strategies, which is also a key aspect of modern psychotherapy and self-improvement (36m42s).
• Research in modern psychotherapy and psychology has identified various coping strategies, including breathing exercises, cognitive therapy, and social support, but no single strategy works every time (36m47s).
• People who exhibit emotional resilience and are able to recover from anxiety and depression tend to have a range of coping strategies, known as coping flexibility (37m38s).

The Socratic Method in Modern Times

• The concept of flexibility is important in Stoicism, allowing individuals to choose intelligently between confronting a situation assertively or backing away and accepting it emotionally, similar to knowing when to pick one's battles (37m43s).
• In modern cognitive therapy, clients often have coping strategies that they've developed themselves or learned from the internet or self-help books, but these strategies can be used maladaptively, contributing to the problem (38m17s).
• A functional analysis is a technique used in cognitive therapy, where individuals weigh the pros and cons of their coping strategies, similar to the Socratic method of questioning one's definition of justice (38m45s).
• Socrates used a technique where he would ask individuals to brainstorm definitions of justice and injustice, and then challenge those definitions by finding exceptions, as seen in his conversation with Euthydemus (39m9s).
• Euthydemus, a self-help enthusiast, had a collection of self-improvement books and wanted to understand the nature of morality or justice, but Socrates showed that he didn't truly understand it, as he was just memorizing concepts without thinking them through deeply (39m30s).
• Socrates drew a diagram with two columns, one for justice and one for injustice, and asked Euthydemus to brainstorm examples of each, and then challenged those examples by finding exceptions (40m13s).
• The technique used by Socrates is similar to one used in cognitive therapy, where individuals are asked to brainstorm examples of a concept, and then challenge those examples by finding exceptions (40m19s).
• Socrates challenged Euthydemus's examples of injustice, such as lying, by asking if it would be just to lie to the enemy in a military campaign, and Euthydemus was forced to consider the exceptions to his definitions (40m54s).
• Socrates uses examples to argue that there may be more nuance to the idea that justice consists in always telling the truth and never lying, such as a parent hiding medicine in their child's food or lying to a suicidal friend to prevent them from harming themselves (41m21s).
• The technique of drawing two columns can be used to get people to think about the pros and cons of different coping strategies, such as when to practice mindfulness, when to fake it to make it, and when to speak one's mind (41m58s).
• Cognitive flexibility and coping flexibility are essential skills that allow individuals to view situations from different perspectives and choose intelligently between different types of coping strategies (42m29s).
• Wisdom is more like a skill rather than just a bunch of ideas or opinions, and it is missing from a lot of modern self-improvement literature (42m38s).
• Self-help techniques can backfire in some situations, and it is essential to consider the pros and cons of each technique, such as mindfulness, which can exacerbate health anxiety or social anxiety in some cases (43m0s).
• Mindfulness can be a useful strategy, but it may not be suitable for everyone, and it is crucial to consider the individual's needs and circumstances before recommending it (43m10s).
• Some self-help techniques can increase self-focused attention, which can contribute to social anxiety and increase cognitive load (43m44s).
• It is essential to think about the pros and cons of different strategies and consider when they might be useful and when they might backfire (44m20s).
• The ancient philosophers used to emphasize the importance of wisdom in making decisions and choosing the right coping strategies (44m35s).
• Teaching moral precepts or coping strategies can be problematic as wise individuals will use them wisely, but foolish individuals may misuse them, and those with severe problems are more likely to misuse strategies found in self-help books (44m37s).
• A meta-skill, or the ability to choose between strategies and figure out their pros and cons, is often missing and is a crucial aspect of cognitive therapy (45m15s).
• Socrates was prophetic in recognizing the importance of this meta-skill, as seen in his approach to philosophy and politics (45m28s).

Socrates' Legacy

• The Organon, one of Aristotle's books, is relevant to this discussion, as it highlights the importance of logic, deduction, and ethics in philosophy and politics (45m35s).
• Socrates did not directly involve himself in politics, except for one incident where he took a principled stand in a trial, but generally believed that direct involvement in politics would be unproductive and potentially fatal (46m16s).
• Socrates chose to critique politics from the sidelines instead, which he believed would be more constructive (47m19s).
• There are similarities and differences between Socrates and Roger Stone, with Stone's approach to politics being more focused on revenge and personal gain, whereas Socrates would have criticized this approach as irrational and unproductive (47m37s).
• Roger Stone's book, "Stone's Rules," contains advice that is often the opposite of what Socrates would have advocated, with a focus on personal revenge and gain rather than the greater good (47m44s).
• Socrates would have been a critic of Stone's cynical attitude towards politics and his use of politics as a means of revenge (48m37s).
• Donald Robertson's ideas on resilience, such as "turning chicken into chicken soup," involve adapting to adversity and developing emotional resilience, similar to the Stoics, but he doesn't seem to connect this to social virtue or justice, instead viewing politics in a more Machiavellian way (49m5s).
• Socrates encouraged people to think for themselves about what a good life consists of, as seen in his conversation with Euthydemus, where he asks Euthydemus to consider what the goal of life is and what constitutes flourishing (50m1s).
• Euthydemus initially thinks that a good life consists of things like noble birth, wealth, status, health, and having many friends, but Socrates argues that these things can potentially be bad if not used wisely (50m30s).
• In another dialogue by Plato, Socrates provides a counterargument that wealth, status, and other external goods are not intrinsically good, but rather practical advantages or opportunities that can be used wisely or foolishly (51m0s).
• Socrates suggests that the only thing that is intrinsically good is practical wisdom or moral wisdom, as it determines how one uses other things, including disadvantages like poverty and sickness (51m42s).
• Through his questioning method, Socrates helps his interlocutors realize that the things most people assume to be the goal of life, such as reputation and material success, are not the most important things, but rather one's ability to use these things well (52m11s).
• Socrates emphasizes that the goal of life is to learn how to use things well, which is often neglected in discussions about what constitutes a good life (52m42s).
• Flourishing consists of practical wisdom or moral wisdom and the realization that the prevailing values of society are often misplaced, prioritizing consumerism and celebrity culture over more meaningful values (52m47s).
• The values of ancient societies, as discussed by philosophers thousands of years ago, are still prevalent today, suggesting that there may be a deeper reason for their persistence (53m7s).
• One possible explanation is that people model their values on the behavior of others, often emulating what they see as children and adopting superficial values without fully understanding the underlying motivations (53m41s).
• As a result, individuals may prioritize external markers of success, such as wealth and status, without considering the deeper values that drive their behavior (53m54s).
• This superficial understanding of values can lead to a trap, where people prioritize the wrong things in life, but it can be overcome through reflection and questioning of one's values over time (54m55s).
• Death can serve as a catalyst for reevaluating one's values, as people often look back on their lives and question whether their priorities were truly worth it (55m37s).
• Having a brush with death early on can also change one's perspective and liberate them from assumptions about what is truly important in life (56m11s).

Socrates' Trial and Execution

• Losing a loved one, such as a parent, can make a person question the point of life and their own values, as experienced by the author who lost their father to lung cancer at a young age (56m19s).
• Having children can also prompt individuals to reflect on their values and what they want for their kids, potentially leading to a re-evaluation of their own priorities (56m53s).
• Ancient philosophy often explores the question of mortality and how it can help people gain insight into their values and priorities (57m35s).
• Reading about philosophers who contemplate mortality, such as Plato's Apology, can be influential in shaping one's perspective on life and values (57m41s).
• Socrates' life ended with his execution, which was the result of a trial where he was charged with impiety and corrupting the youth, likely due to his unconventional beliefs and associations with influential figures (58m0s).
• The charges against Socrates were not uncommon for intellectuals in ancient Athens, and his execution was likely the result of a combination of factors, including his political views, friendships, and his tendency to humiliate powerful people (58m55s).
• Socrates' trial was attended by 500 people, and he addressed the jury, acknowledging that many of them had preconceived notions about him, possibly due to a play that caricatured him (59m45s).
• Socrates is often judged based on a play that portrays him as a corrupt pseudo-intellectual, but this is not an accurate representation of his character (59m52s).
• In his defense during the trial, Socrates referenced his military service and the honor he received for defending Athens, questioning why he was now being put on trial for practicing philosophy, which he believed was a way to improve the people of the city (1h0m15s).
• Socrates argued that defending the city's walls was pointless if the people living in it were corrupt, and he was willing to risk his life for his philosophical beliefs, just as he had in the military (1h0m31s).
• He did not beg for mercy during the trial and instead gave a lecture on philosophy, which was seen as "big talk" by the jury, leading to his condemnation to death (1h1m5s).
• Socrates' family was not present during the trial, as he did not want to beg for mercy, and he was unapologetic throughout the proceedings (1h1m24s).
• Socrates' age and potential decline may have contributed to his decision to make a statement by accepting death, rather than trying to extend his life indefinitely (1h1m56s).
• His martyrdom for philosophy had a lasting impact, and he became an icon to generations of young philosophers, including the Stoics, who were influenced by his ideas (1h2m17s).

The Stoics and Socrates

• The Stoic philosopher Epictetus, who lived 400 years after Socrates, referenced him in one of his most famous quotes, highlighting Socrates' lack of fear in the face of death (1h2m53s).
• Epictetus used Socrates as an example to argue that death is not intrinsically terrible, as Socrates was not afraid of dying, and this idea is a key part of Stoic philosophy (1h3m16s).
• In cognitive therapy, one of the first questions asked when someone is depressed, angry, or frightened is whether others feel the same way about the situation, to explore alternative perspectives (1h3m36s).
• Socrates used this approach when his friend Lamprocles was angry with his mother, asking if others found her unbearable, highlighting that different people can view the same situation differently (1h3m45s).
• Epictetus emphasized that people are not upset by things themselves, but by their opinions about them, using the example of death, where some people are not scared of dying, while others are (1h4m12s).
• Many elderly people are resigned to their own death, having been bereaved multiple times and experienced health scares, and have become accustomed to the idea of dying over time (1h4m34s).
• Socrates, facing his trial, was an older man who had lived through many brushes with death, including battles, a plague, and attempts on his life, and was surprisingly unafraid of dying (1h5m0s).
• Epictetus used Socrates as an example of someone who realized that it's one's opinions that shape their fear, citing his steadfastness in the face of execution as a prime example (1h5m59s).
• Socrates' refusal to beg for mercy or compromise his values, even in the face of death, was a testament to his philosophical integrity and would have been inconsistent with his values if he had acted otherwise (1h6m51s).
• Socrates' last dialogue took place when he was about to drink the poison hemlock, surrounded by his friends and family, including his childhood friend Krito, who mentioned that some people don't drink the poison straight away and that Socrates was allowed to have a final meal (1h7m10s).
• Socrates decided to drink the poison immediately, feeling that trying to delay it would be ridiculous and inconsistent with his previous actions, having been prepared for his death for a month (1h8m8s).
• Socrates' readiness to drink the poison was seen as a demonstration of his courage and commitment to his principles, having been prepared for his death for a long time (1h8m28s).
• The Stoics were influenced by Socrates' ideas and way of life, with some Stoics, such as Seneca, drawing parallels between Socrates' actions and their own philosophy (1h8m48s).
• Seneca, a Stoic philosopher, had a complex and sometimes contradictory life, with a public image as a philosopher and a private life marked by political games and backbiting (1h8m56s).
• Seneca's relationship with the Roman Emperor Nero was similar to Socrates' relationship with the Athenian statesman Alcibiades, with both philosophers trying to influence their powerful friends to be better rulers (1h9m30s).
• Seneca was primarily known as an author and rhetorician, rather than a philosophy teacher, and his relationship with Nero was more focused on training him in rhetoric than in teaching him philosophy (1h10m15s).
• Seneca's life and work can be seen as a mix of Stoic philosophy and Sophism, with some critics arguing that he did not always live in accordance with his philosophical principles (1h10m41s).
• Seneca became famous by writing consolation letters using Stoicism to wealthy and influential figures who had been bereaved, earning him a reputation as a self-help guru to the rich and famous in Roman society (1h10m56s).
• As a result, Seneca became an adviser to Nero, who was a despot, and wrote speeches defending Nero in the Senate, including a letter on clemency that praised Nero as a great ruler despite his tyrannical nature (1h10m58s).
• Seneca's involvement with Nero compromised his reputation, and he was seen as having morally compromised himself by other Stoics of the time (1h11m11s).
• Marcus Aurelius' teacher, Fronto, had a low opinion of Seneca, criticizing his writing style and comparing searching for wisdom in his writings to digging for silver coins in a sewer (1h11m54s).
• Seneca's writings were more famous in ancient Rome for his political speeches defending Nero, rather than his philosophical works, which has affected his legacy (1h12m40s).
• During the same time, there was a Stoic opposition that fought against Nero and his regime, with several members dying or being exiled for their defiance (1h13m13s).
• Epictetus, a Stoic philosopher, idolized the Stoic opposition and never mentioned Seneca, indicating that he did not hold Seneca in high regard (1h13m50s).
• The question of whether Socrates was ugly or not is a contested point, with some sources describing him as unattractive, while others, such as classicist Armand D'Angour, suggest that he may have been more attractive in his youth (1h14m10s).

Socrates' Appearance and Personality

• Socrates' friends described him as having a unique appearance, with a pelican-like walk, crab-like eyes, and a face like a torpedo fish, but it is possible that they were teasing him in an Athenian cultural context (1h14m42s).
• A modern statue of Socrates in Athens depicts him as incredibly buff, but ancient sculptures show him as a little, pop-bellied old man, often presented as a comedy character (1h15m14s).
• In Xenophon's Symposium, Socrates jokes about winning a beauty contest, leading to a discussion on whether beauty comes from a person's character (1h15m41s).
• Socrates' friends find his claim ridiculous, but Xenophon notes that one can learn more about wise men by seeing them at leisure (1h16m12s).
• Socrates was known for being witty and humorous, often saying things that were both joking and serious at the same time (1h16m25s).
• To moderate drinking and prevent people from getting too drunk, Socrates suggested using smaller cups to improve the quality of conversation (1h17m6s).
• Socrates believed that the right amount of wine could be conducive to a good philosophical conversation, comparing it to watering a plant that needs just the right amount to thrive (1h17m31s).
• Socrates stood in one place for 24 hours, from sunrise to sunrise, during a battle, and was observed by other soldiers who were surprised by his endurance (1h18m12s).
• After standing all night, Socrates said a prayer to the rising sun, which may have been associated with the god Apollo (1h18m46s).
• Socrates associated the god Apollo with the sun, and Apollo was considered the patron god of philosophy, with the Priestess of Apollo stating that no man is wiser than Socrates (1h18m56s).
• The phrase "know thyself" originated from outside the Temple of Apollo, which became a theme for the Socratic method, emphasizing the pursuit of self-knowledge (1h19m16s).
• Socrates would regularly freeze and meditate, and the concept of "know thyself" is explored in various dialogues, including the First Alcibiades, which discusses Socrates' conversation with the statesman Alcibiades (1h19m30s).
• In the First Alcibiades, Socrates questions Alcibiades' competence to become a political leader, leading to a conversation about the nature of justice and the meaning of "know thyself" (1h20m23s).
• Socrates explains that self-knowledge is not just knowing one's name, but truly understanding oneself, using the metaphor of an eye that sees itself, implying that the mind can know itself through philosophical dialogue with others (1h21m1s).
• Socrates suggests that engaging in philosophical dialogue with others serves as a mirror for the soul, allowing individuals to gain a deeper understanding of themselves and overcome personal biases (1h21m50s).
• This concept is relevant to modern self-help, as it highlights the limitations of individual self-reflection and the importance of seeking guidance from others, a notion supported by research on the nature of wisdom (1h22m10s).
• Research confirms that people are generally better at giving advice to others than to themselves, a phenomenon also observed among psychotherapists who often struggle with their own personal issues despite being able to provide guidance to their clients (1h22m38s).

Socrates' Philosophy and Modern Self-Help

• Empathy plays a crucial role in helping therapists and others to indirectly learn about themselves by putting themselves in their clients' shoes and understanding their mistakes (1h23m14s).
• Professor Gusman's research has proven that people are more effective at giving advice to others than to themselves, a realization that Socrates also seemed to understand, which is why he believed that engaging in philosophical dialogue is essential for learning about oneself (1h23m35s).
• Socrates used a technique of engaging in imaginary dialogues, often in the second person, to critique himself and gain greater objectivity, a method that allowed him to apply the skills he had developed from critiquing others to his own self-reflection (1h25m23s).
• Research by Professor Igor Gman found that people who kept a journal in the third person, describing their problems and attempting to resolve them as if giving advice to someone else, exhibited measurably more wisdom in their advice and solutions than those who wrote in the first person (1h24m20s).
• Socrates' method of engaging in hypothetical dialogues, such as imagining arguments with the laws of Athens, allowed him to critique himself and develop a greater understanding of his own strengths, weaknesses, and limitations (1h25m28s).
• Socrates' biggest philosophical weaknesses include incomplete and unconvincing arguments with gaps, which many academic philosophers disagree with (1h26m21s).
• Despite these weaknesses, Socrates' dialogues were not written to persuade people to agree with him, but rather as teaching aids to train the mind to think through puzzles from different perspectives (1h27m13s).
• Socrates' method implies certain radical conclusions, such as the idea that injustice harms the perpetrator more than the victim, which is a hard view to accept but memorable (1h28m27s).
• This idea is repeated in the Platonic dialogues and is still remembered decades later, with Socrates stating that those who put him on trial and sentenced him to death unjustly were harming themselves more than they were harming him (1h28m53s).
• This idea is similar to an extreme version of stoicism, and while it may be extreme, it has some basis in modern psychology, which shows that people who suffer from clinical depression tend to have high levels of perceived injustice (1h29m44s).
• Research also shows that anger is linked to depression and is directly linked to the perception of injustice, suggesting that one's philosophy of justice can affect emotions like anger and depression (1h30m5s).
• Socrates' idea that one's own injustice does more harm than the injustice of others may have some merit in relation to modern psychology, particularly in regards to the negative effects of anger and perceived injustice on mental health (1h30m25s).
• Socrates' fearlessness in the face of injustice stemmed from his belief that acts of injustice couldn't harm his moral character, which was the most important thing to him (1h30m48s).
• On his deathbed, Socrates would reflect on whether he maintained his integrity throughout his life, which was something that others couldn't take away from him (1h31m4s).
• In therapy, it's often found that people's anger usually does them more harm than the things they're angry about, as it impairs their ability to think about the consequences of their actions (1h31m25s).
• Anger impairs people's ability to think straight, leading to impulsive behavior, and they tend to think very short-term when they're angry (1h31m51s).
• Angry people often regret their actions when they're no longer angry and are thinking about the longer-term consequences (1h32m29s).
• Anger can destroy relationships, as it impairs people's ability to empathize with others and leads to hostile attribution bias, where they assume others are acting out of hostility towards them (1h33m12s).
• In therapy, it's helpful to draw a list with people to show them all the ways in which anger is harming them (1h34m11s).
• Anger can harm various aspects of life, including physical health, mental health, and relationships with others, as it tends to spread and affect people who are not initially involved in the situation (1h34m15s).
• When in an angry state of mind, people may take out their anger on friends and family, not just their perceived enemies, which can lead to negative consequences in personal relationships (1h35m14s).
• In therapy, people often find that their own anger is doing them more harm than the initial cause of their anger, such as a politician's statement or a personal issue (1h35m28s).
• Socrates took the concept of anger further, making an interesting point about its effects, which is still relevant today (1h35m48s).
• The author initially thought it would be impossible to write a book about Socrates due to the complexity of his character, the Peloponnesian War, and the need to condense philosophy, history, and psychology into a single book (1h36m0s).

Writing About Socrates

• The author changed their approach by deciding to write the book in a more dramatized style, similar to a movie screenplay, which allowed them to simplify and abbreviate certain aspects of Socrates' life and philosophy (1h37m5s).
• The author had to take creative liberties with the historical sources, combining characters and points, and abbreviating arguments to make the book more manageable and engaging (1h37m18s).
• The author put a significant amount of planning and work into the book, estimating that they put four times as much effort into it as they did into their previous book, "How to Think Like a Roman Emperor" (1h37m53s).
• Aelius is mentioned as an example of a historical figure with well-recorded information due to his writings and prestigious position as an emperor, yet there is still limited information about him because he didn't attract much drama (1h38m16s).
• The subject of the new book is a historical figure with limited recorded information, making it challenging to write about, with the author having to rely on incomplete and uncertain sources, such as the event of going to Delie and the pronouncement, which is presented as a key moment in his life but lacks a confirmed date (1h38m52s).
• The uncertainty of the date of the pronouncement at Delie makes it difficult to create a narrative, and the author has to choose a date to proceed with the story, which could be one of several possible options (1h39m12s).
• The author approaches the writing of the book like a graphic novel, taking creative liberties to tell the story, which liberates them from the constraints of academic writing (1h39m32s).
• The author takes satisfaction in writing different types of books, unlike some authors who write the same type of book repeatedly, and has written eight books in different genres, including academic history, self-help, and graphic novels (1h40m11s).
• The author believes that stretching oneself and trying new things is essential for growth, even if it means taking the risk of failure, and this mindset encouraged them to write the book about Socrates despite initial doubts (1h40m30s).
• The author's age and decreasing fear of making mistakes also contributed to their decision to write the book, and they approached the project with the question of what they would want to write in a book for their 17-year-old self (1h40m51s).
• The story of a historical figure can be considered awesome and interesting, even if some details are debatable, and it's more important to focus on how to apply the story practically and what can be learned from it (1h41m35s).
• The process of writing a book involves specific steps, including writing the audiobook first and reading it aloud to identify how it sounds (1h42m21s).
• To test the audiobook, a local reader is hired to read the entire manuscript aloud, which can take several hours, and this process is repeated multiple times to refine the content (1h42m51s).
• The author works in a library and uses a timer to practice a meditation technique called the Benson method for 10 minutes, which involves repeating a word or counting to become more aware of the distinction between voluntary and automatic thoughts (1h43m24s).
• After the meditation, the author imagines being in ancient Greece, talking to Socrates, and asks him questions about the book's content, which helps to clarify the author's thoughts and opinions (1h44m20s).
• The imaginary conversations with Socrates involve shaking hands, which initially seems weird to Socrates, but eventually becomes a familiar gesture (1h44m31s).
• The author finds that discussing historical and philosophical topics with Socrates helps to clarify their opinions and understanding of the subject matter (1h44m53s).
• The Socratic method focuses on telling the story of the literary character of Socrates in a way that people interested in philosophy can understand, rather than trying to get historical accuracy (1h45m5s).

The Socratic Method and Modern Philosophy

• There is an odd split on the internet between extreme credentialism, where only experts are considered knowledgeable, and the romanticization of untrained thinkers who challenge the establishment (1h45m43s).
• Extreme credentialism can stifle the ability to play with ideas and think creatively, as people are discouraged from exploring topics outside of their domain of credentialed competence (1h46m10s).
• On the other hand, having zero qualifications in certain subjects can lead to the Dunning-Kruger effect, where people make basic errors due to a lack of understanding (1h47m34s).
• The internet has exacerbated this issue, with people often unable to distinguish between causation and correlation, and medical research being a prime example of this confusion (1h47m50s).
• Understanding basic medical research methods is crucial to avoid misinterpreting data and making basic mistakes, as seen during the pandemic where people without medical research backgrounds were misinterpreting research studies (1h48m11s).
• The bar for being considered an expert is often set unreasonably high, making it difficult for people to contribute to discussions outside of their area of expertise (1h46m58s).
• A more Socratic approach would allow people to consider multiple perspectives and think creatively, rather than being limited by their qualifications (1h47m14s).
• There are examples of great thinkers in the past who were not qualified in their field, but still made significant contributions, highlighting the importance of considering ideas from multiple perspectives (1h47m25s).
• There are problems with discussing ancient philosophy, including errors made by non-academic philosophers that an academic philosopher might not make, but it's essential to be aware of the pros and cons of different approaches (1h48m38s).
• The distinction between amateurs and experts is not always clear-cut, as there are pros and cons to each, and knowing what those are is crucial for a nuanced understanding (1h49m22s).
• Even highly qualified academics and experts can make mistakes or say things that are considered "bonkers" by their peers, highlighting that expertise is not always a guarantee of accuracy (1h49m50s).
• Research has shown that experts in a particular field can be biased and prone to committing the cherry-picking fallacy, making their reviews of research unreliable (1h50m35s).
• Experts can be invested in certain theories and have a distorted view of the facts, which can lead to biased interpretations of research (1h51m30s).
• There is a problem with relying solely on experts and becoming passive, rather than using one's own reason, as research has shown that people can be influenced by "R-governed behavior," where they follow rules without questioning them (1h52m0s).
• A study has demonstrated that people who are taught how to solve a puzzle by following rules may not understand the underlying principles, highlighting the importance of critical thinking and not just relying on expert guidance (1h52m12s).
• An experiment was conducted where two groups were given a puzzle to solve, with one group receiving verbal instructions and the other group having to figure it out through trial and error (1h52m26s).
• In phase two of the experiment, the rules governing success changed without informing the participants, requiring them to adapt (1h52m46s).
• The group that learned the rule verbally continued to use the same strategy despite it not working, while the group that figured it out through trial and error adapted more quickly (1h53m7s).
• This phenomenon is referred to as insensitivity to environmental change, which is also observed in people who come for psychotherapy, as they often continue to use strategies that are not working (1h53m21s).
• One explanation for this rigidity in behavior is that when people learn a role or strategy passively, they tend to overextend and apply it too rigidly, leading to problems (1h53m52s).

Anger Management and Self-Improvement

• Robertson's book aims to educate people about the effects of anger and provide strategies for managing it, as it plays a significant role in politics, social media, and other areas of life (1h55m11s).
• Anger is a significant issue that affects the behavior of politicians and can be compared to ancient philosophical literature and modern psychological research, making it a crucial topic for self-improvement (1h55m57s).
• The author calls Anger Management the "Royal Road to self-improvement" because most people seeking self-improvement struggle with self-blaming emotions like anxiety and depression, whereas angry people tend to avoid self-help (1h56m20s).
• Angry individuals often avoid self-help and therapy, instead joining online communities focused on self-improvement, such as the manosphere, where they discuss self-improvement despite their anger (1h56m53s).
• People can find the author's work on his website, donaldrobertson.name, and on Substack, where he regularly posts updates (1h57m34s).
• The author is involved with two nonprofits: a modern stoicism organization running Stoic Week and the Plato's Academy Center in Greece, which aims to create a conference center adjacent to the original location of Plato's Academy (1h57m46s).

Conclusion and Future Plans

• The author expresses interest in doing a future episode on CBT, focusing on the biggest principles and lessons, and sharing his expertise as a "techniques guy" who trained therapists and classified psychological techniques (1h58m43s).
• The author enjoys teaching people and sharing practical techniques, such as visualization, and hopes to do more of this in future interviews (1h59m19s).
• The discussion revolves around exploring various meditation techniques and their connections to Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) (1h59m28s).
• There's an acknowledgment of not being properly exposed to CBT, which is considered an "elephant in the room," and a feeling of embarrassment about it (1h59m37s).
• The realization is made that many of the self-discovered wisdom and ideas may have already been explored in CBT, which could potentially lead to a reevaluation of one's own thoughts (1h59m51s).
• The conversation concludes with an appreciation for the discussion and a mention of a future exploration of CBT and its connections to meditation techniques (2h0m9s).
• The episode ends with a thank you note and an invitation to explore more content (2h0m15s).