Dr. Brian Keating: Charting the Architecture of the Universe & Human Life

Dr. Brian Keating (0s)

• The Huberman Lab podcast is hosted by Andrew Huberman, a professor of neurobiology and ophthalmology at Stanford School of Medicine, where he discusses science and science-based tools for everyday life (0s).
• Andrew Huberman's guest is Dr. Brian Keating, a professor of cosmology at the University of California, San Diego (14s).
• The discussion with Dr. Keating is the most zoomed-out conversation on the podcast, covering the origins of the universe, the Earth's relationship to the Sun and other planets, and optics (25s).
• The conversation also explores the use of telescopes and microscopes to see things very far away or very close up (45s).
• The discussion aims to teach the scientific process, highlighting that science is a human endeavor and that understanding the world and universe is filtered through human perspectives (1m4s).
• Dr. Keating has an incredible perspective and approach to science, having built giant telescopes at the South Pole and taken on other ambitious projects in service to discovery (1m37s).
• The podcast is separate from Andrew Huberman's teaching and research roles at Stanford, but part of his effort to bring zero-cost information about science and science-related tools to the general public (1m48s).
• The podcast episode includes sponsors, aligning with the theme of providing free information to the public (2m3s).

Cosmology, Origin of Universe (2m7s)

• The study of cosmology encompasses the entire universe, and the prefix "cosmos" relates to the Greek word for "beautiful" or "appearance," which is shared with the word "cosmetology" (2m59s).
• Humans are born with two refracting telescopes in their skulls, which are embedded in the eyes, making astronomy a visceral science that connects us to the universe (3m29s).
• Astronomy is the oldest of all sciences, and cosmology is the most overarching branch of astronomical sciences, including all physical processes involved in the formation of matter, energy, and time itself (4m0s).
• Cosmology speaks to a universal urge to know what came before us, and it allows us to apply the laws of physics to understand the origin of everything in the universe (5m37s).
• The origin of the universe is an event that no entity could bear witness to, and humans are curious to uncover its secrets, using fossils from cosmic time to understand what existed at the beginning of time (4m52s).
• Cosmology encompasses all of science, including life on other planets, consciousness, and the formation of the brain, making it a fascinating field that evokes curiosity about the biggest questions and topics (5m14s).
• The study of cosmology is driven by a primal curiosity in human beings to know what came before us, and it allows us to explore the biggest questions, such as how everything got here (5m25s).
• New Year's Day is often considered a favorite day on the calendar, as it represents a beginning, and this preference speaks to a human desire to understand beginnings and origins (4m23s).

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Stars, Planets, Early Humans, Time (8m33s)

• The universe and the organization of planets relative to the Sun, their spins, and other characteristics can evoke a sense of awe and intuition about the vastness of space and time (8m35s).
• Looking up at the stars, especially at night, can change one's perception of time, allowing humans to think into the past, be present, and project into the future (8m51s).
• The human brain is remarkable for its ability to contract or expand its notion of time, making plans based on this ability, and this is something that humans do exceptionally well compared to other animals (9m39s).
• When looking up at the stars, people may not realize that some of the stars they see may not be in the position they appear to be, as some may have existed a long time ago, but this does not prevent the experience from giving a sense of expansion of time (10m11s).
• The reason looking up at the stars gives a sense of expansion of time is rooted in deep prehistory, where ancient societies looked at constellations to keep track of time, which was crucial for their existence, particularly for seasons, holidays, and festivals (10m30s).
• Ancient societies kept track of time by observing constellations, which is evident in cave paintings, such as those found in Lascaux, which date back to 40,000 BCE and depict constellations like Orion and Taurus (11m7s).
• Humans are exceptionally good at recognizing patterns, which helped them observe and record the repetition of constellations over time, passing down this knowledge through generations before written language existed (11m44s).
• The continuity between generations was maintained through oral language, pictography, and cave paintings, which stored information and allowed ancient societies to keep track of time and the movements of the stars (12m5s).
• The rotation of the Earth has not changed significantly over the past 40,000 years, allowing ancient civilizations to use the positions of celestial objects for various purposes, including planting and harvesting (12m18s).
• The Ancients used the rotation of the Earth and the positions of celestial objects to create a system of timekeeping, which was crucial for commerce, human culture, and civilization (12m28s).
• The word "planet" comes from the Greek word for "wanderer," and the five visible planets up to Saturn were named and associated with astronomical events and events on Earth (12m57s).
• The days of the week are named after celestial objects and ancient gods, with Sunday named after the Sun, Monday after the Moon, and Tuesday after Mars, while Thursday is named after Thor, the Norse god (13m24s).
• The use of celestial objects as a clock was essential for measuring time, which was a significant problem until the development of functional clocks in the 1700s (13m47s).
• Ancient civilizations believed that the positions of celestial objects, particularly planets, had a causal relationship with events on Earth and could determine a person's future prospects in life (14m16s).
• The distinction between astronomy and astrology is often blurred, with astronomers sometimes being mistaken for astrologers, who claim to predict a person's future based on the positions of celestial objects (14m38s).

Astrology, Ophiuchus Constellation (14m53s)

• Astrology has no scientific evidence to support its claims, with many random controlled trials and double-blind studies showing that astrologers' predictions are often counter to reality, and in some cases, even worse than random chance (14m56s).
• The Babylonians and Persians divided the sky into 12 zodiac signs, which is still used today, and their number system was based on 60, which is why they chose 12 signs that divide evenly into 60 (15m34s).
• The position of the sun in a constellation on the day of a person's birth determines their zodiac sign, but the sun's position has shifted over time due to the procession of the equinoxes (16m10s).
• There are 88 accepted constellations, and the path that the sun, moon, and planets travel is called the zodiac, which is confined to a plane due to the formation of the solar system from a nebular cloud (16m37s).
• The solar system formed about five billion years ago from a supernova, and the Earth formed four billion years ago from the same cloud, with the spin of the disc resulting in the conservation of angular momentum (17m3s).
• The sun, moon, and planets move in the same direction due to conservation of angular momentum, and the sun's apparent motion is due to the Earth's rotation around it (17m39s).
• The constellation behind the sun on the day of a person's birth determines their zodiac sign, but there is a problem in that the sun's position has shifted over time, and in December, the sun is actually in a different constellation called Ophiuchus, which is not recognized by the traditional zodiac (18m1s).
• Ophiuchus is a constellation that was not included in the original zodiac, which was created around 5,000 years ago, and people born in a 17-day stretch in December would actually be considered Ophiuchus according to the sun's current position (18m11s).
• The existence of the constellation Ophiuchus, which was unknown to ancient astrologers, yet 12% of people share this constellation, invalidates astrology as a science (18m27s).
• Twins born on the same day have radically different histories, pasts, and futures, showing that astrology has no predictive power (18m37s).
• Astrology lacks any scientific validity, as it fails to make testable hypotheses, and there is zero evidence to support its claims (18m48s).
• A personal experience with an astrologer, who claimed the same outcomes despite being told the wrong birth sign, demonstrates the unfalsifiable nature of astrology (19m19s).
• Astrology is unfalsifiable, meaning it cannot be proven or disproven, and is too flexible to accommodate any story, making it a hallmark of non-science or anti-scientific thinking (19m41s).
• The flexibility of astrology allows it to accommodate any situation, such as challenges, stock market fluctuations, or political turmoil, without providing any actual predictive power (19m46s).

Pineal Gland, Time-Keeping & Stars, Seasons & Offspring (19m58s)

• The first timekeeping approach was to evaluate the position of celestial objects in the sky relative to landmarks, which helped people understand the passage of time and the changing seasons, regardless of their birth dates or astrological signs (19m59s).
• This method of timekeeping was likely used by ancient tribes who observed the position of stars and constellations in the sky to determine the time of year and the length of days, which was essential for survival and resource management (20m30s).
• The pineal gland, found in many animals, including mammals and reptiles, plays a crucial role in regulating the body's internal clock by secreting melatonin, a hormone that is suppressed by light and released in response to darkness (21m14s).
• The duration of melatonin release is directly related to the amount of light in the environment, with longer nights resulting in more melatonin release and shorter nights resulting in less melatonin release (21m19s).
• In animals, light can pass through the skull or skin to reach the pineal gland, allowing them to regulate their internal clock, but in humans, the pineal gland is embedded deep in the brain, and light cannot reach it directly (22m15s).
• Instead, humans rely on visual information from the eyes to regulate their internal clock, which is then transmitted to the pineal gland through a complex neural pathway (22m43s).
• The timing of an individual's birth, particularly in relation to the length of days and the availability of resources, can have a significant impact on their survival and development, especially in regions far from the equator (23m0s).
• Humans have developed alternative methods to determine the time of year and the length of days, such as observing celestial bodies and using calendars, to compensate for the lack of direct light stimulation of the pineal gland (23m45s).
• The movement of the stars or planets can be detected with the human eye, but the shifts may be imperceptible, requiring the creation of charts to track time (23m51s).
• The reason to chart time is to track the changes in the sky at night, which is meaningful for tracking time (24m20s).
• The correlation between the time of year and human birth rates is due to people being indoors and procreating during the winter holiday season (24m45s).
• The month of birth can be correlated with the time of conception, which is typically nine months prior (24m54s).
• The efficiency of capitalism is evident in the way companies like CVS can collect data and target advertisements, such as sending ads for baby products nine months after a pregnancy test is purchased (25m47s).
• The temperature during gestation can have an effect on the developing fetus, with differences between summertime and wintertime (26m8s).
• The first astronomers were likely women, who noticed the correlation between their menstrual cycle and the lunar cycle, which is approximately 29 and a half days (26m51s).
• The Moon's renewal and diminishing have been observed and studied throughout history, with evidence suggesting that early astronomers, including the first professional female astronomer in 1700s England, were keenly aware of these phenomena and their potential implications (27m2s).
• Women have an extra timekeeping device that men do not, which is their menstrual cycle, and some women are highly attuned to their ovulation event, describing it as a physical sensation (27m37s).
• Research has explored the relationship between a child's birth and the seasonal cycle, with data suggesting that this relationship may impact the child's development, particularly in regions closer to the Equator (28m0s).
• Studies have found a correlation between the prevalence of schizophrenia and distance from the Equator, with higher rates of schizophrenia observed in regions farther from the Equator (28m26s).
• A study by a researcher at Caltech found a heightened probability of schizophrenic offspring in mothers who contracted influenza during a specific phase of the second trimester (28m34s).
• The relationship between birth timing and schizophrenia is complex and multifaceted, involving various factors such as placental effects, and identical twins studies have shown that even when sharing the same genetic material, one twin can develop schizophrenia while the other does not (28m54s).
• The timing of birth relative to the seasons can have significant effects on a child's development, with factors such as food abundance and infectious diseases, including influenza, playing a role (29m7s).

Humans, Time Perception, Astronomy (29m19s)

• Identical twins show more similarities than fraternal twins, even when raised apart, indicating that genetics play a significant role in human development (29m28s).
• The power of genetics is often underestimated, and acknowledging their influence can provide hope for personal growth and improvement (29m55s).
• Humans share a significant amount of DNA with other species, such as fruit flies and bonobos, with some bonobos having a 98% similarity to humans (30m11s).
• The human species, Homo Sapiens, is unique in its awareness of mortality, which invests life with meaning and highlights the importance of wisdom (31m2s).
• The awareness of death and the specialness of human existence can provide a sense of purpose and meaning in life (31m16s).
• The human brain's ability to model time and forecast the future is a unique feature that sets humans apart from other species (31m54s).
• This ability to simulate and predict outcomes is made possible by the frontal prefrontal cortex, which allows humans to conduct thought experiments and model likely outcomes (32m4s).
• However, this skill can also lead to the confusion of correlation with causation, which can have serious consequences (32m23s).
• Confirmation bias is a prevalent notion in every human being, including scientists, and it's essential to guard against it, as it can be very powerful and dangerous (32m32s).
• Humans tend to believe in the idea that celestial orbs play a role in their lives, which is similar to a paganistic existence where people want to believe there's a force responsible for their fates (33m1s).
• Some species, such as turtles, migrating birds, and pigeons, use magneto reception to sense magnetic fields, and there's evidence that some humans can also perform better than chance in magneto reception perceptual tasks (33m20s).
• Research has shown that within the eye of the fruit fly, there are magneto receptors, and some humans have a weak capacity to sense magnetic fields, which can be trained up somewhat (33m31s).
• Humans have a tendency to believe in the idea that they have superpowers or skills beyond their reflexive understanding, such as having a sixth sense or experiencing synesthesia (34m8s).
• Synesthesia is a real phenomenon where people can perceive certain keys on the piano and immediately evoke the perception of a particular color, and it's an example of unusual crossmodal plasticity (34m33s).
• While some people claim to have enhanced their senses through training, such as seeing certain things with infrared or near-infrared wavelengths, the question remains how useful and predictive these abilities are (35m4s).
• Astrology is still widely covered in newspapers, with more ink written about it than astronomy, despite the lack of predictive elements in astrology (35m47s).
• In a capitalistic society, people crave an explanation for the seemingly random events that occur in their lives, which is an ancient urge (36m2s).

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Brain & Prediction; Moonset, Syzygy; Telescope, Galileo (37m47s)

• The human brain is a prediction-making machine that relies on reliable information to make predictions, and it has a strong tendency towards confirmation bias, which is the ability to link A and T as opposed to A, B, and C, and work through things linearly to disprove one's own hypothesis (37m52s).
• The brain's desire for reliability and simplicity can lead people to seek explanations for themselves and others through methods like astrology, rather than conducting systematic experiments (38m27s).
• The retinas in the back of the eyes are part of the brain's central nervous system, which was squeezed out of the skull during the first trimester of development through a genetic program (38m50s).
• The retinas are the only part of the brain that resides outside the cranial vault, giving humans an enormous capacity to make judgments about space and time based on visual information (39m4s).
• The ability to sense the world through vision is unique compared to other senses, such as smell, and allows humans to perceive and understand their environment in a way that would not be possible otherwise (39m26s).
• The concept of "two refracting telescopes" refers to the human eyes, which can be thought of as telescopes that refract light and allow humans to perceive the world around them (39m32s).
• The limitations of the human eye can be overcome with the use of actual telescopes, which can reveal new and fascinating information about the world and the universe (39m52s).
• A personal experience with a bright light in the night sky, later identified as the moon and a nearby star, sparked an interest in telescopes and the study of the universe (40m6s).
• The alignment of astronomical objects, known as a conjunction or syzygy, can be a rare and awe-inspiring sight, and can spark curiosity and a desire to learn more about the universe (40m35s).
• The internet and large language models have made it easier for anyone to conduct research and become a scientist, as science is for everyone (41m5s).
• A childhood observation of the night sky, which included the Moon and Jupiter, sparked an interest in astronomy and led to the realization that planets can be seen with the naked eye (41m25s).
• This observation was around the time of the Voyager's Grand Tour of the solar system, and it marked the beginning of astronomical research, which involved looking up information and forming hypotheses (41m45s).
• The inability to afford a telescope led to a job at a deli and a grant from a "three-letter agency" (later revealed to be the "mom agency," referring to the speaker's mother), which supplemented the $2 an hour salary and eventually allowed for the purchase of a $75 telescope (42m9s).
• The first telescopes were invented in the Netherlands using glass from eyeglasses, and the inventor of the telescope, Hans Lippershey, initially used it as a spyglass rather than for astronomical observations (42m43s).
• Galileo Galilei is considered a hero for being the first person to use a telescope to look at the night sky and spot objects in the solar system that had never been seen before with a scientific tool (43m6s).
• Galileo's observations began in 1609, a time when there were no clocks or scientific tools of great virtue, and he went on to invent many of these tools, including the magnetic compass and slide rule (43m50s).
• The geocentric model of the universe, which states that everything orbits around the Earth, was widely accepted until Galileo challenged it by observing the moon with his telescope (44m8s).
• Many educated people today still struggle to prove that the Earth is not the center of the solar system, with around 75-80% of students failing to do so in an astronomy 101 quiz (44m58s).
• The knowledge that the Earth orbits the Sun, rather than the other way around, is only about 400 years old, despite being a fundamental concept in astronomy (45m20s).
• Galileo Galilei is credited with developing the first notion of relativity, which states that relative motion is indistinguishable, and this idea was later built upon by Albert Einstein (45m38s).
• Galileo was also the first person to use the scientific method, which involves making observations, forming hypotheses, and testing them through experimentation and peer review (46m14s).
• Galileo used a refracting telescope, which uses lenses to magnify objects, to make his observations of the moon and challenge the geocentric model of the universe (46m19s).
• The telescope used by Galileo was able to magnify objects by a factor of 3 to 10 times, allowing him to make detailed observations of the moon and other celestial bodies (46m32s).
• Aristarchus of Samos is mentioned as someone who had knowledge of the Earth's shape and movement around the Sun 2,000 years ago, but this knowledge was not widely accepted until much later (45m13s).
• The concept of general relativity, developed by Albert Einstein, was celebrated on its 100th anniversary in Italy, where Galileo's contributions to the field were also honored (45m28s).

Light Refraction; Telescope, Eyeglasses (46m36s)

• Refraction is the process by which light slows down and bends when it passes from one medium to another, such as from air into water or glass, and can be observed when light passes through a transparent or translucent material at an angle (46m36s).
• This phenomenon can be demonstrated by placing a pencil in a clear glass of water, where the pencil appears to be bent due to the refraction of light (47m44s).
• Refraction is used in telescopes to magnify and shape the wave of light coming in, allowing for distant objects to be observed in greater detail (47m58s).
• The term "telescope" comes from the Greek words "tele," meaning distance, and "skopos," meaning viewer, and was first used for scientific purposes by Galileo (48m2s).
• Galileo also invented the tripod, which is now a common tool used to stabilize cameras and other optical instruments (48m21s).
• The best glass for optical instruments during Galileo's time was found in Holland, where the Dutch were known for their high-quality glass production due to their attention to detail and precision (48m40s).
• The standard for human visual acuity was established through the use of eye charts, such as the Snellen chart, which measures an individual's ability to read numbers and letters of different sizes at a given distance (49m21s).
• The Snellen chart is still used today in eye exams and at the DMV to assess an individual's visual acuity (49m24s).
• In the state of California, individuals with vision worse than average can still obtain a driver's license, and many people in the United States who qualify as legally blind are also granted licenses, primarily relying on their peripheral vision while driving (49m50s).
• The standardization of eye charts at DMVs is attributed to the Gutenberg Bible, which was the only acceptable standard across Western Europe 430 years ago, featuring fixed character sizes that allowed for calibration (50m15s).
• The Gutenberg Bible was used as a reference point to assess visual acuity, with individuals unable to read it at a certain distance indicating diminished vision, which could then be corrected with lenses (50m42s).
• This method of assessing visual acuity is ironic, given that Galileo later used the same lenses to construct a telescope by stacking them, rather than placing one on each eye (51m7s).
• Galileo did not invent the telescope but rather perfected it, much like how other innovators, such as Apple and Facebook, improved existing ideas to make them significantly better (51m17s).

Earth Rotation & Sun (51m36s)

• Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to propose that the Earth revolves around the Sun while rotating on its axis and tilting, which gives us the Equinox (51m37s).
• Galileo corrected Copernicus' math, but it was Copernicus who provided the first trusted statement that the Earth and other planets rotate around the Sun (51m47s).
• Copernicus gave the hypothesis that the Sun is the center of the universe, rather than the Earth, which was the prevailing view at the time (52m10s).
• The prevailing view at the time, known as the geocentric model, held that the Earth was the center of the universe, and everything orbited around it (52m16s).
• The earliest cosmological models, such as the Ptolemaic concept, placed the Earth at the center of the universe, with the Sun and other planets orbiting around it (52m29s).
• However, the geocentric model had problems, such as explaining the retrograde motion of planets like Mercury, where the planet appears to move backwards in the sky (52m45s).
• The geocentric model also struggled to explain the anomalies in the orbits of planets, which were later explained by the Earth's rotation and revolution around the Sun (52m50s).
• To account for these anomalies, the geocentric model added epicycles, which were small orbits of the planets that helped to explain their motion (53m26s).
• The addition of epicycles allowed the geocentric model to better explain the motion of the planets, but it was still an incomplete and inaccurate model of the universe (53m32s).

Glass, Microscope, Telescopes & Discovery (53m43s)

• The Dutch were able to create high-quality glass due to their exploration and trade, which allowed them to acquire the finest materials, demonstrating how commerce and economics can contribute to scientific advancements (54m11s).
• The development of scientific tools, such as microscopes and telescopes, has enabled humans to study and understand the world around them, from the smallest microorganisms to the farthest reaches of the universe (54m30s).
• Some humans have a desire to look at things that are very close up, such as using microscopes, while others want to look at things that are very far away, like the stars and the moon (55m52s).
• A subset of humans is particularly interested in understanding the universe and the things that are far away, and it is unclear why this is the case, but it may be driven by a desire to better understand life on Earth or to transcend it (56m23s).
• The desire to explore and understand the universe may be a unique aspect of human nature, with some people being more inclined to focus on the terrestrial and arboreal aspects of the planet, while others are drawn to the mysteries of the deep ocean or the vastness of space (56m41s).
• The motivation behind this desire to explore and understand the universe is complex and may be driven by a combination of factors, including a desire to better understand life on Earth or to leave it behind, and it is likely a personal and individual drive rather than a single diagnosable condition (56m54s).
• The relationship between parents and children can be complex, with some individuals having to navigate the challenges of living up to their parents' expectations, as in the case of the speaker who had a hard-driving father who was a scientist, (57m6s).
• Repair work in relationships is essential and worth the effort, as it can lead to a more beautiful and meaningful connection, as seen in the speaker's relationship with their dad, (57m27s).
• The discovery of the Moon next to Jupiter was a pivotal moment in the speaker's life, providing a sense of excitement and wonder, similar to solving a puzzle, (58m8s).
• Solving puzzles or discovering new things can give individuals a thrill of discovery, which can be diminished as they get older, but can still be recaptured through new experiences, (58m47s).
• The speaker's first telescope allowed them to see the same features on the Moon that Galileo saw, and they also observed Jupiter's atmospheric bands and four little stars, which are actually the planet's moons, (59m14s).
• The speaker gifted a telescope to someone, hoping they would use it to observe Jupiter and its moons, and experience the thrill of discovery, (59m41s).
• The speaker's son created a 3D printed Moon with craters, which is a cool representation of the Moon's surface, (59m24s).
• Albert Michelson, the first American Nobel Prize winner in physics, proved that the Earth is not moving through the ether, a concept that was previously hypothesized by luminaries, (58m16s).
• Storms on Jupiter have been occurring for at least 400 years, as observed by Galileo, and are enormous hurricanes at the planet's equator, with bands similar to the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, featuring fluids such as methane and ammonia that behave like liquids (1h0m13s).
• The colors and swirling whirls of these storms are visually stunning and can evoke a sense of amazement and uniqueness, similar to what Galileo felt when he first observed them (1h0m37s).
• Astronomy is unique in that it allows individuals to experience a visceral connection to the first discovery of a phenomenon, such as Galileo's observation of Jupiter's storms, which cannot be replicated in other branches of science (1h1m0s).
• The discovery of phenomena like the Higgs boson and gravitational waves involved large teams of people, making it impossible to know what it felt like to be the first to discover them (1h1m6s).
• From Los Angeles, it is possible to see the same craters and Galilean moons of Jupiter that Galileo observed, and spacecraft are currently being sent to explore these moons for signs of life (1h1m40s).
• For a relatively low cost, individuals can purchase a telescope and experience the thrill of astronomy, which can be a powerful distraction from life's challenges and provide a sense of connection to the universe (1h2m5s).
• The experience of using a telescope can be described as feeling transported to other worlds, allowing individuals to understand them through simple math and tools, and providing a sense of companionship and wonder (1h2m27s).
• Astronomy allows individuals to do science with their eyes and minds, making it an incredible and thrilling experience (1h2m50s).

Science as Safe Space; Jupiter, Galileo, Discovery, Time (1h2m53s)

• Looking at distant places in space and time can evoke a sense of connection, as experienced by Galileo, but this connection is not felt when looking down a microscope, even at cells named after notable scientists like Ramon y Cajal (1h2m53s).
• The best science is apolitical, providing a safe space where individuals can escape from the stresses of everyday life, including politics and social media (1h3m42s).
• Science, particularly astronomy, can serve as a means of recovery from the pressures of daily life, allowing individuals to ponder the origins of life and connect with people from the past (1h4m24s).
• Galileo and other scientists may have used their work as a form of healthy escapism, allowing them to temporarily forget about their troubles and focus on understanding the world (1h5m19s).
• Galileo was a pioneer in the scientific method, using apparatuses to confirm hypotheses, and his observations of the moon can still be replicated today with a simple telescope (1h5m41s).
• With modern technology, it is possible to connect a telescope to an iPhone and share observations on social media, allowing people to experience the same sense of wonder as Galileo (1h5m57s).
• Galileo's discovery of four dots near Jupiter, which were actually the moons of Jupiter, can be observed with a $50 instrument, and some of these moons are almost the size of Earth's moon (1h6m17s).
• Observing these celestial bodies can be therapeutic, as it was for Galileo in his later years when he went blind and lost his daughter (1h6m51s).
• Galileo had a challenging life, being almost always broke, having mistresses, and being married and divorced in a time when it was difficult to be a Catholic in Italy (1h7m11s).
• Despite his personal challenges, Galileo was a brilliant inventor who improved the telescope, making it 10x to 20x more powerful, and realized the importance of making money from his discoveries (1h7m25s).
• Galileo decided to sell his telescopes only to the government, recognizing their potential as great military devices, and was able to charm and negotiate with the Venetian Senate to secure a deal (1h8m48s).
• Galileo's competitor, Kepler, was a purely theoretical scientist who came up with functions for the orbits of planets before Isaac Newton proved them using calculus and universal gravitation (1h8m26s).
• Galileo and Kepler were vying for the title of best astronomer of all time, with Galileo having a monopolistic advantage due to his improved telescope (1h8m7s).
• The Doge, the chief of the Venetian government, was the one Galileo negotiated with to sell his telescopes, showcasing his charming and charismatic personality (1h9m1s).
• The wealthiest countries in Europe were separate from Tuscany and Rome, and a maritime pro was taken to the Piaza San Marco to demonstrate the power of a telescope, allowing him to see a ship three days earlier than it would be visible to the naked eye (1h9m15s).
• This ability to see things at greater distances and higher resolutions provides a window into time, giving the user a significant advantage, similar to having a stealth fighter and being able to turn off its stealth capabilities (1h9m41s).
• The trajectory of the ship allows the user to gain insight into what's going to happen later, essentially providing a crystal ball into the future, while looking at the position of the stars allows for anticipation of future events based on historical charts (1h10m8s).
• A light-year is a measurement of distance in terms of time, highlighting the interrelation between space and time, and the combination of these two concepts is essential for understanding the universe (1h10m25s).
• The ability to see great distances with the telescope also affords the user an extra advantage when it comes to predicting the future, allowing for a top contour survey of sorts (1h10m40s).

Early Humans, Stonehenge, Pyramids, Measurement Standards (1h10m48s)

• Early humans, such as cavemen and women, charted stars on walls to track time and seasons, which helped them determine optimal times for hunting, collecting, and reproducing (1h10m57s).
• The earliest humans likely passed down knowledge to their youngsters about the stars and their relation to the environment, such as the length of days and the location of ridges (1h11m15s).
• Fast-forwarding to around 5,000 BC, during the Egyptian Epoch, people had a zodiac calendar and built structures like the pyramids, which seem to have led some to believe in supernatural or extraterrestrial explanations for their construction (1h11m47s).
• Despite the pyramids' impressive mass, location, and the limited knowledge of populations and tools at the time, it is reasonable to assume that people built them, although the exact methods used are still a topic of discussion (1h12m42s).
• The ancient Egyptians used the cubit, the length of the pharaoh's forearm, as a measurement standard, which is roughly equivalent to a foot and a half (1h13m7s).
• The cubit was used as a calibration standard, which is essential for removing systematic effects in science, and was used to measure the bases of the pyramids, which were found to be multiples of a cubit times the number Pi (1h13m40s).
• The ancient Egyptians did not know the value of Pi, which was not discovered to be irrational until the Greeks, but they were able to approximate it by using surveyor tools and counting the number of multiples of a circle (1h15m4s).
• The use of Pi in the construction of the pyramids can be attributed to the Egyptians' practical application of geometry, rather than supernatural or extraterrestrial explanations (1h15m27s).
• The construction of Stonehenge and the pyramids remains a mystery, but it is not necessary to posit supernatural explanations, and it is more likely that they were built by people using the tools available to them at the time (1h15m35s).

Giants of Astronomy (1h15m54s)

• Ancient ancestors were followed by Kernus, who had ideas about the universe but couldn't prove them, and Cernus, who believed in the sun-centered model but had no data to substantiate it (1h15m56s).
• Cernus' model was later proven to be incorrect, as the center of the solar system is actually inside the sun, and the planets orbit around it in an elliptical pattern (1h16m24s).
• Science progresses through the work of giants like Newton, who was right about gravity until Einstein proved him wrong, and Kepler, who discovered the laws of elliptical motion of planets (1h16m37s).
• Kepler's laws underpin many discoveries, including the discovery of exoplanets and exomoons, which could be linked to the evolution of life on Earth (1h16m45s).
• Galileo used the telescope to discover the phases of Venus, the rings of Saturn, and the moons of Jupiter, which falsified the notion of an Earth-centered universe (1h17m24s).
• Astronomers later measured the speed of light, distances to Saturn, and mapped out the solar system using parallax and trigonometry (1h17m58s).
• William Hersel and his sister Caroline Hersel, the first female astronomer, used the scientific method and became a fellow of the Royal Society (1h18m14s).
• The development of photographic plates and spectrographs allowed for the preservation of astronomical data and led to major discoveries, including Hubble's discovery of the expansion of the universe (1h18m35s).
• Hubble's discovery was made possible by the work of women like Henrietta Leavitt, who measured the relationship between the size and brightness of objects, and Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin, who discovered how fusion works in the sun (1h19m0s).
• Later discoveries, including the detection of gravitational waves and the accelerating expansion of the universe due to dark energy, were made possible by the work of scientists like Penzias and Wilson, Robert Jansky, and Barry Barish (1h19m25s).

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• The testing program provides actionable recommendations, such as reducing mercury levels by limiting tuna consumption, eating more leafy greens, and supplementing with Knack and acetylcysteine (1h20m42s).
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Origin of Life, Scientific Method & P-Hacking; Nobel Prize, Big Bang, Inflation (1h23m10s)

• The origin of life in the universe is often described as a series of big explosions, the formation of elements, the presence of water, and the emergence of critters and multicellular organisms, but this explanation can be difficult to grasp for some people, including scientists (1h23m10s).
• The difficulty in understanding the origin of life may be due to the fact that scientists are trained to think in terms of the scientific method, which involves hypothesis, observation, experimentation, and iteration, but the origin of life is a complex and unique event that cannot be replicated or controlled (1h23m53s).
• The concept of "p-hacking" or "packing" refers to the practice of manipulating data or experimental design to achieve statistically significant results, which is considered unethical and can lead to false conclusions (1h24m30s).
• P-hacking can manifest in various fields, including physics, and has been observed in cases such as the discovery of high-temperature superconductors and the claim of cold fusion, which turned out to be bogus (1h25m21s).
• The discovery of cold fusion in the late 1980s was initially met with excitement, but was later found to be the result of manipulated data, and is an example of how p-hacking can lead to false conclusions and unethical behavior (1h25m29s).
• The search for the cause of the Big Bang is an ongoing area of research, and scientists are still trying to unravel the mystery of what ignited the spark that became our universe (1h26m6s).
• The discovery of the Big Bang was announced at Harvard on St. Patrick's Day in 2014, and was covered by major news outlets around the world (1h26m30s).
• A groundbreaking discovery was made, considered one of the greatest of all time, explaining the origin of the universe and predicting the existence of other universes and the Multiverse (1h26m39s).
• The discovery was an inspiration, and a personal goal was set to invent an experiment that could take us back to the primordial Universe before the Big Bang (1h29m8s).
• The Big Bang is not the origin of time and space, but rather the origin of the first elements in the periodic table, and the cause of this event is still unknown (1h29m16s).
• The phenomenon of inflation is hypothesized to be the cause of the Big Bang event (1h29m30s).
• A personal motivation to win a Nobel Prize was driven by a desire to compete with a father who was a brilliant scientist, but had abandoned his family (1h28m35s).
• The father, a mathematician and physicist, was a full professor at Cornell at the age of 26, but never won a Nobel Prize or the Fields Medal, which is considered equivalent (1h27m45s).
• The speaker's original last name was Axe, but was changed to Keating after being adopted by their stepfather (1h27m29s).
• The speaker's father had a difficult relationship with his family and did not provide child support or alimony, leading to the speaker being adopted by their stepfather (1h27m21s).
• The concept of a mysterious substance called a Quantum field was predicted by at least three scientists, including Alan Guth, who is now at MIT, and Andrei Linde, a renowned professor at Stanford. (1h29m36s)
• The Quantum field exists in a four-dimensional infinite space, and its fluctuations are unstable, leading to the creation of vacuum energy. (1h29m50s)
• Vacuum energy is unstable and cannot remain permanent, eventually fluctuating and potentially spawning an expansion of the four-dimensional space locally. (1h30m2s)
• The fluctuations in the Quantum field can cause an expansion of the four-dimensional space, which occurred at a specific point in time. (1h30m10s)
• The concept of four-dimensional space is relevant to understanding the expansion that occurred at this specific point in time. (1h30m17s)

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation, BICEP (1h30m20s)

• The universe can be thought of as a three-dimensional space with X, Y, and Z axes extending to infinity in all directions, with our observable universe at the center, allowing us to look out 90 billion light years in any direction, which is longer than the age of the universe times the speed of light (1h30m26s).
• The universe has been expanding for 14 billion years, and this expansion, combined with its age, means that we can see objects that are farther away than the age of the universe times the speed of light (1h30m47s).
• Time is a fourth component that must be woven together with the three dimensions of space to understand how objects behave in the cosmos (1h30m54s).
• Our universe has a horizon, similar to the horizon we see when looking out at the ocean, which marks the boundary beyond which we cannot see, and this horizon is two-dimensional on a three-dimensional surface (1h31m6s).
• The horizon in four dimensions is a two-dimensional surface, which means that it is a sphere centered on us, and we see constellations, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies when looking out in all directions (1h31m39s).
• The Cosmic Microwave Background radiation is the oldest light in the universe, originating from the formation of the lightest elements and atoms, and it contains a pattern imprinted on it called gravitational radiation or waves of gravity (1h31m59s).
• This pattern could be evidence of something beyond the visible horizon and could originate from the inflationary epoch if it occurred (1h32m26s).
• A refracting telescope with lenses transparent to microwaves could potentially detect this pattern and provide evidence of the inflationary epoch (1h32m37s).
• The possibility of detecting this pattern was a big enough scientific quest that it was guaranteed to win a Nobel Prize if successful, but a retracted discovery made at Harvard in 2014 meant that this prize was not awarded (1h32m50s).
• The retracted discovery was made on St. Patrick's Day 2014, and it was a paper that had not been peer-reviewed due to concerns about a competitor, a billion-dollar spacecraft (1h33m5s).
• The BICEP experiment, led by the speaker, used a small telescope at the South Pole in Antarctica and made a groundbreaking discovery that bested a scientific telescope led by thousands of people and costing a billion dollars (1h33m34s).
• The original discovery of the cosmic microwave background was made by accident at Bell Laboratories while looking at the first communication satellites, and they found a 3 Kelvin heat source coming from all directions (1h33m53s).
• The discovery was made when scientists noticed hundreds of times the expected amount of background hiss noise while looking at a satellite, and after precise measurements, they found that the heat source could be explained by the universe beginning with a Big Bang (1h34m13s).
• The speaker notes that if the team that discovered the cosmic microwave background had won a Nobel Prize, certainly the team that discovered why the effect happened would have also won a Nobel Prize (1h34m46s).
• The speaker published a paper on their discovery, but it wasn't peer-reviewed due to concerns about getting "scooped" by someone else beating them to publication (1h35m6s).
• The paper was submitted to the archive, and a press conference was held at the Harvard Center for Astrophysics and Space Sciences, which was televised and attended by Nobel laureates and reporters (1h35m28s).
• The speaker created the predecessor experiment to BICEP, which was also called BICEP and stood for Background Imager of Cosmic Extragalactic Polarization, and was a play on words referencing the pattern of microwave polarization (1h35m55s).
• The speaker received funding for the experiment from David Baltimore, the president of Caltech, and notes that scientists are human and have interesting stories, such as David Baltimore's time as president of Rockefeller University (1h36m26s).
• A special grant from the Caltech presidential fund, given by David Baltimore, enabled the funding of a project, which was a significant turning point in a career path (1h36m49s).
• The grant recipient's postdoctoral adviser was Andrew Lang, an incredible scientist who was married to Francis Arnold, a renowned scientist and Nobel Prize winner in chemistry in 2018 (1h36m57s).
• Andrew Lang invited the grant recipient to give a talk, after which they were hired on the spot, and they accepted the job offer immediately, having been unhappy at Stanford at the time (1h37m11s).
• The grant recipient was struggling financially at Stanford, making $32,000 a year and living on Alma Street, where they were often awake early due to the Cal trains running every 17 minutes (1h37m21s).
• The grant recipient moved to Caltech and, with the support of the grant, convinced their colleague Jamie Bock to build a telescope and install it at the South Pole in Antarctica (1h37m35s).
• The South Pole was the only location suitable for the telescope project, and Caltech was the only university willing to fund it through the presidential fund gift from David Baltimore (1h37m43s).
• The job at Caltech and the telescope project ultimately led to a job at UCSD, which enabled the grant recipient to meet their future wife (1h37m54s).

Father & Son Relationship, Science & Rewards (1h37m58s)

• A project to build an experiment at Caltech in Pasadena was initiated with an initial funding of $1 million to create the first version, with the South Pole chosen as the location for the experiment (1h38m4s).
• The experiment was designed to look for the spark that ignited the Big Bang, making it a significant project in the cosmology field and gaining a lot of attention (1h38m31s).
• The drive behind the project was partly due to personal reasons, including the desire to live up to family lineage and prove oneself, especially in relation to one's father (1h38m47s).
• The example of Tiger Woods, who had a hard-pushing father and still felt the need to achieve more, is mentioned as a similar story of someone driven by their family dynamics (1h39m7s).
• The fuel that drives someone to start a journey may not be the same as what sustains them throughout, and it's possible to put down the emotional baggage that initially motivated the journey (1h39m30s).
• The personal journey of initiating the experiment was initially driven by the desire to prove oneself to their father, who had abandoned them and their brother, and to make him regret his actions (1h39m45s).
• The father, an intellect, had a complicated relationship with his son, joking that he only cared about kids once they learned calculus, which was perceived as a cruel thing to say (1h39m58s).
• The son and father eventually reunited after the experiment was initiated, but the son's desire to prove himself was no longer a driving force, and the experiment continued due to its own momentum and the involvement of many people (1h40m53s).
• The pressure surrounding the experiment ultimately led to the son being removed from its leadership (1h41m10s).
• The tragic event that precipitated a significant change was the loss of a mentor figure, Andrew Lange, who was a renowned scientist and a charming individual with a passion for discovery (1h41m14s).
• Andrew Lange was a professor at Caltech, and his wife, Frances Arnold, was also a scientist who won the Nobel Prize a few years later (1h41m48s).
• Andrew Lange inspired a passion for discovery and a love for solving problems, with the reward being a harder problem to solve, which is characteristic of the infinite game of science (1h42m11s).
• Science is an infinite game that cannot be won, but rather is composed of an infinite number of finite games, such as getting into college, graduate school, or winning a Nobel Prize (1h42m30s).
• The ultimate finite game in science is winning a Nobel Prize, which is an exclusive club with only a few winners each year (1h42m50s).
• Andrew Lange showed that science is its own reward, and the pleasure of finding things out is the ultimate reward, rather than external recognition or accolades (1h43m18s).
• Tragically, Andrew Lange took his own life at the peak of his career, using helium, an element central to the formation of the universe, in a motel where the speaker had previously stayed (1h43m36s).

Loss, Mentor (1h44m6s)

• A renowned professor, who was 41 years old, had taken his own life in a bathtub, two weeks after celebrating an achievement, leaving behind three sons, a wife, and a child from a previous marriage whom he had adopted as his own. (1h44m15s)
• The professor was a close mentor and friend, and his death was a tragic loss to everyone who knew him, including his family and those he had mentored. (1h45m7s)
• The relationship between genius and mental health is complex, and sometimes there can be a close connection between the two, with some individuals exhibiting reckless behavior, such as taking risks with large sums of money and careers. (1h45m37s)
• The professor's death came as a surprise, and it is unclear whether his mental health played a role in his decision to take his own life, but it is possible that the pressure of being a genius and the stress of his personal life may have contributed to his struggles. (1h45m28s)
• The professor had made a groundbreaking discovery, proving that the universe has a flat spatial geometry, which had significant implications for our understanding of the universe's origins, and this discovery is still widely accepted today. (1h46m48s)
• The concept of the "peak and trough of dopamine" is mentioned, suggesting that the professor may have been experiencing a peak in his career and personal life, which can sometimes be followed by a trough, leading to feelings of depression and hopelessness. (1h47m23s)
• Large amplitude increases in dopamine that are not preceded by effort can have negative consequences, such as those experienced with methamphetamine use, which can lead to a post-dopaminergic peak trough and a loss of the will to live (1h47m32s).
• Playing an infinite game, or being motivated to find answers, can be beneficial, but it's not clear if this was a factor in a specific individual's decision to end their life (1h48m4s).
• The human brain is the most complicated thing that humans can contemplate, and it's difficult to understand the complexities of an individual's personal life and motivations (1h48m19s).
• The individual in question, Andrew, experienced personal struggles, including divorce and separation, but it's not clear if these factors contributed to his decision to end his life (1h48m29s).
• Andrew's death had significant consequences, including the loss of a patron and backer who had helped with career advancement and provided emotional support (1h49m2s).
• The loss of this support system had a significant impact, and it's not clear how to comprehend the complexities of Andrew's decision to end his life (1h49m37s).
• The eventual high of success wouldn't come for four years after Andrew's death, and a crashing low followed after a retraction and disconfirmation of their work (1h49m47s).

Antarctica, South Pole (1h49m55s)

• The journey to the South Pole is a challenging and violent experience due to the extreme weather conditions, but it is considered a significant accomplishment, similar to going to the moon, with the first person to reach the South Pole being a major achievement, but not necessarily leading to further exploration in the short term (1h49m55s).
• The South Pole is located on the seventh continent, Antarctica, which was the last to be discovered and explored, with the quest to reach the South Pole being a major goal for explorers like Robert Falcon Scott and Roald Amundsen (1h50m41s).
• Antarctica was only discovered in the 1900s, and it was initially thought to exist as a counterweight to the continents in the northern hemisphere, but it wasn't until the early 20th century that it was truly explored (1h50m50s).
• The journey to the South Pole typically begins in Chile, where travelers fly to and then take a military flight to the South Pole, which can take anywhere from 7 to 21 days depending on the weather (1h50m2s).
• Robert Falcon Scott was a British scientist and explorer who attempted to reach the South Pole, but was beaten by Roald Amundsen, who reached the pole 3 weeks earlier (1h51m36s).
• Amundsen had previously attempted to reach the North Pole, but was beaten by someone else, and decided to continue his journey to the South Pole instead, traveling 180 degrees around the Earth (1h51m43s).
• The North Pole and South Pole are the two endpoints of the Earth's axis of rotation, with the North Pole being located on ice and the South Pole being located on a continent (1h51m54s).
• The South Pole is located 700 nautical miles from the coast of Antarctica, and the closest point of approach in the 1900s was McMurdo Station, which was a small research station (1h52m20s).
• Explorers would typically take a ship from New Zealand to McMurdo Station and then ski up 9,000 feet to the polar plateau to reach the South Pole (1h52m28s).
• Robert Falcon Scott, a British explorer and scientist, led an expedition to the South Pole, but his dedication to collecting scientific samples and equipment ultimately cost him his life due to the weight and bulk of the items he had to carry, which made it difficult for him to return (1h52m58s).
• Scott's Norwegian competitor, Roald Amundsen, successfully reached the South Pole first, using sled dogs for propulsion, companionship, and as a source of food, whereas the British team refused to eat their dogs (1h53m30s).
• Amundsen's team arrived at the South Pole in December, while Scott's team arrived three weeks later in January, only to find the Norwegian flag already planted, which was a devastating moment for Scott (1h54m17s).
• Scott's team turned back, but the winds had died down, and they were no longer at their back, making it difficult for them to ski back to their base, and Scott eventually died in March, about three months after reaching the South Pole (1h55m5s).
• The South Pole is considered one of the best places in the world for astronomy due to its unique location and conditions, and scientists often travel there via Christchurch, New Zealand, and then take a charter flight to the pole (1h55m28s).
• The journey to the South Pole involves flying to Santiago, Chile, and then taking a charter flight to Christchurch, New Zealand, where scientists board a US Air Force C-130 or C-17 cargo plane to reach the pole (1h55m30s).
• A plane used for transportation has limited amenities, including a 5-gallon bucket as a bathroom and a shower curtain for privacy, with no windows on it (1h56m14s).
• The plane is also used to transport large quantities of goods, including 12 tons of bananas (1h56m24s).
• The experience of traveling on this plane has led to a personal aversion to bananas, with no bananas being consumed in 12 years (1h56m28s).
• After landing on the coast, further travel may involve taking a flight on a ski plane the next day, which is a strategic asset not exported by the US (1h56m38s).
• The ski plane is difficult to access, making it challenging to travel to certain destinations, such as the South Pole (1h56m48s).

Light & Heat Pollution, South Pole (1h56m49s)

• Light pollution is a significant issue when trying to observe the stars, and even in areas with minimal light pollution, the light from cities can still travel far and be a problem (1h56m52s).
• The South Pole is an ideal location for avoiding light pollution, but the primary concern is actually heat pollution, which is why a cold location is necessary (1h57m37s).
• The South Pole has several properties that make it suitable for this type of research, including the sun being below the horizon, and the Earth's temperature being around 300 Kelvin, which is still much warmer than the desired fraction of a Kelvin (1h57m53s).
• The South Pole is also above a significant portion of the Earth's atmosphere, which reduces interference from man-made sources of RF and microwave interference (1h58m17s).
• The cold and dry air at the South Pole means that there is very little water vapor in the atmosphere, which is important because water absorbs microwaves and can interfere with the research (1h58m51s).
• The low humidity at the South Pole is equivalent to about 0.3 millimeters of liquid water, compared to around 25 millimeters in Los Angeles (1h59m0s).
• The reason for avoiding water vapor is that it can absorb microwaves and heat up, which can interfere with the research and potentially damage equipment (1h59m12s).
• The goal of the research is to detect photons from the Big Bang or potentially even before the Big Bang, and to do this, it is necessary to avoid interference from water molecules in the atmosphere (1h59m30s).
• The best place to conduct this research would be in space, but it is much more expensive, with estimates suggesting it could be a factor of a thousand to a million times more expensive (1h59m43s).
• The initial funding for the project was around $1 million, but it eventually received around $10 million, which is still considered a relatively small amount of money for a project of this scope (2h0m4s).
• Building a high-powered telescope at the South Pole requires significant infrastructure and funding, likely in the hundreds of millions of dollars, but the National Science Foundation provides support for the project, including transportation and equipment (2h0m20s).

Prize Pursuit, First Discovery; Star Collapse, Micrometeorites, Polarization (2h1m9s)

• A news conference was held, but it turned out that the information presented was not correct, and it was better to be corrected quickly rather than having to return a prize later (2h1m9s).
• The pursuit of prizes is a complicated thing, and the speaker's graduate adviser, Barbara Chapman, discouraged pursuing prizes, focusing instead on doing experiments (2h1m30s).
• Barbara Chapman was a smart and accomplished scientist who worked on various projects, including sending zebra fish to space to study the development of the vestibular system in the absence of gravity (2h1m43s).
• The speaker's postdoctoral adviser was also ambitious but discouraged the pursuit of prizes, considering it the right approach (2h2m17s).
• The speaker believes that chasing prizes can be dangerous, as it may cause one to miss the journey and the actual work, comparing it to playing football solely to get a Super Bowl ring (2h2m24s).
• Despite initial mistakes, the speaker enjoyed doing the work and now finds it even more exciting, especially with the new project, the Simons Observatory (2h2m49s).
• The BICEP team's results, which the speaker was initially a part of, were not a blunder but rather a misinterpretation of a signal produced by another astrophysical source, which was thought to be indicative of the inflationary origin of the universe (2h3m29s).
• The stakes are high in detecting this signal, as it would be concomitant with the existence of the Multiverse, and there is pressure on scientists to be the first to make the discovery (2h3m56s).
• The speaker's adviser was scooped and never won the Nobel Prize, while other scientists, such as Penzias and Wilson, won the prize for their accidental discovery (2h4m4s).
• There is a benefit to priority in scientific discoveries, as seen in the example of Robert Scott racing to the South Pole (2h4m17s).
• The goal of scientific research is to make progress as quickly as possible while being careful, and sometimes this means being wrong for the right reasons, such as not being aware of a confounding factor. (2h4m47s)
• The origin of the universe was initially mistaken for the "imperator of this origin spark" due to the presence of dust, which is the humblest substance in the universe and is produced when a star explodes. (2h5m3s)
• When a star explodes, it produces heavier elements, including iron, which is the element that marks the end of a star's life cycle, as it produces too little energy to keep the star buoyant and expanded. (2h5m19s)
• The collapse of a star leads to the ejection of byproducts, including silicon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and iron, into the interstellar medium, polluting the galaxy and making it a "smoggy" and "dusty" place. (2h5m36s)
• The dust in the galaxy is composed of microscopic meteorites that are highly magnetic and dense, and can be found on the website brian.com, where actual meteorites from Argentina are given away. (2h6m0s)
• The composition of these meteorites is determined by the last event that a star does before it dies, which is to produce iron, and can be analyzed using x-ray crystallography. (2h6m27s)
• A microwave signal was discovered from the galaxy, but not from the Big Bang or the cosmos, which is unique to the Milky Way and is produced by the explosion of stars and the resulting iron-rich micrometeorites. (2h6m36s)
• These micrometeorites act like little compass needles and are highly magnetically susceptible, aligning with the magnetic field of the galaxy and producing a type of polarization. (2h6m54s)
• Polarization is a characteristic of light that is often unfamiliar, but is essential to understanding light as a wave, and is similar to the undulation of an ocean wave or the oscillation of a rope. (2h7m26s)
• The intensity of light is measured by how hard it is oscillating, and the plane of oscillation is known as the plane of polarization (2h7m57s).
• The plane of polarization is compared to the motion of a jump rope, illustrating the oscillating plane (2h8m1s).
• Cosmic dust particles from exploded stars in the galaxy can be polarized, and these particles are made up of tiny needles of dust (2h8m5s).
• Many stars in the galaxy produce these particles of dust, resulting in billions of them (2h8m14s).
• The pattern of polarized cosmic dust particles was initially thought to be evidence of the origin of the universe, or the "birth pangs of the Big Bang" (2h8m21s).

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• The red lens glasses are not traditional blue blockers and are not meant to be worn during the day, but rather to prevent the full range of wavelengths that suppress melatonin secretion at night (2h9m0s).
• Wearing ROKA red lens glasses can help calm the wearer down and improve their transition to sleep by filtering out short wavelengths of light (2h9m17s).
• The glasses can be worn out to dinner, concerts, or social events, making it possible to support one's biology while remaining social (2h9m43s).
• To try ROKA, visit roka.com and enter the code "huberman" at checkout to save 20% off the first order (2h9m54s).

Moon, Size & Horizon; Visual Acuity; Rainbow or Moon Bigger? (2h10m8s)

• The Moon appears larger when it's near the horizon compared to when it's overhead due to the human brain having a reference point to compare it to when it's near the horizon, such as buildings or trees, whereas when it's overhead, there's nothing to compare it to (2h10m41s).
• The Moon's apparent angular diameter is always the same, approximately half a degree, which is the same as the Sun's apparent angular diameter, making Earth the only planet in the solar system where a total solar eclipse can occur (2h11m2s).
• The Moon is about 60 times the Earth's radius away from the Earth, approximately 250,000 miles or one and a half light seconds away, and its diameter is roughly the size of the continental US (2h11m34s).
• The Moon's size doesn't change, but the human eye perceives it as larger when it's near the horizon because it has something to compare it to, and this comparison makes the Moon appear larger than it actually is (2h11m50s).
• A person can measure the Moon's size and prove it's always the same by using a reference point, such as the width of their pinky fingernail held at arm's length, which is approximately half a degree (2h12m36s).
• To understand degrees, a person can use their thumb as a reference point, with the width of their thumb at arm's length being approximately one degree (2h12m50s).
• The human visual acuity for 20/20 vision is approximately 60 cycles per degree, whereas a hawk or other raptors have a visual acuity of about 120 cycles per degree (2h13m23s).
• The human eye has a limited Acuity threshold, and when 40 black lines are drawn, with 80 total lines including the color of the nail, it appears as solid black, demonstrating that it is beyond the Acuity threshold when looking at one degree (2h13m50s).
• When the moon is at the horizon, it can be eclipsed by a person's pinky finger, and the same is true when the moon is overhead, which may seem counterintuitive to some people (2h14m11s).
• The width of a rainbow is approximately one degree, and when comparing it to the width of the moon, the moon is actually bigger, despite the rainbow appearing thicker (2h14m57s).
• The size of the moon is roughly the same as the size of the sun, which can be used as a point of reference (2h15m11s).

Sunset, Green Flash, Color Opponency (2h15m21s)

• The Green Flash is a phenomenon that occurs when the sun sets over the horizon, especially over the ocean, and is characterized by a brief appearance of a green color. (2h15m47s)
• The Green Flash can last for days or hours and is best seen on a perfectly clear day with no clouds on the horizon, and it is more visible over the ocean. (2h17m24s)
• The phenomenon is not exclusive to the South Pole, but it is more pronounced there due to the unique atmospheric conditions, and researchers at the South Pole can observe it for an extended period. (2h16m5s)
• The Earth's atmosphere is layered, and the Green Flash occurs due to the scattering of light as it passes through the atmosphere at a shallow angle, which is more pronounced when the sun is near the horizon. (2h17m47s)
• An analogy to understand the Green Flash is to imagine a flat Earth with a thick slab of translucent glass on top, where the amount of glass (or atmosphere) the light passes through increases as the angle of view increases. (2h18m1s)
• The Green Flash is a real phenomenon that can be observed with the naked eye and photographed, but it requires specific atmospheric conditions to be visible. (2h17m14s)
• When looking at the horizon, the Earth's atmosphere scatters sunlight, with longer wavelengths penetrating through dust and smog particles more easily, while shorter wavelengths are scattered out of the beam of light due to the intermolecular spacing of the smog, dust, and gas in the atmosphere (2h18m44s).
• The Sun's light peaks slightly in the green spectrum, but this is not noticeable to the human eye, which is more sensitive to green light than yellow light, with the highest sensitivity between 450 and 550 nanometers (2h19m34s).
• The green flash seen at sunset is due to the sensitivity of the human eye to green light and the scattering of yellow light away by the atmosphere, making green light more visible at the point of maximum scattering when the sun crosses the horizon (2h20m26s).
• The human ability to perceive different colors, including reds and greens, is based on trichromacy, the presence of three different photo receptors that absorb short, medium, or long wavelength light, with opponency allowing for the comparison of these colors (2h21m13s).
• People with red-green color blindness, such as one in 80 males, see red colors as more orangish or brown due to their limited ability to perceive green, while dogs also have limited color vision (2h21m36s).
• A biological explanation for the green flash, previously considered, suggested that it was due to the human eye's ability to perceive colors, particularly the contention between red and green, but this explanation has been disputed (2h21m5s).
• A biological explanation for seeing the opposite colors is that when the Sun is setting, it appears orange-red, and this color can be looked at without distressing the eyes, as opposed to when the Sun is overhead (2h22m14s).
• When the reddish-orange color of the setting Sun disappears, there is a perception of a green flash due to the opponent seeing the switch to a different wavelength channel (2h22m32s).
• The biological explanation may explain the amplification of the green flash, but it does not explain why it can be seen in a photographic emulsion, as there is nothing biological about it (2h22m48s).
• A preferred explanation is that the green flash is explained by real physics, and the biology of color opponency is also physics, although not as well worked out (2h22m52s).

Menstrual & Lunar Cycles; Moon Movement (2h23m5s)

• The average menstrual cycle is 28 days, but there is no conclusive evidence that the lunar cycle influences the menstrual cycle, or vice versa, although some animals may have cycles influenced by the lunar cycle (2h23m5s).
• The lunar cycle has a significant effect on the Earth's oceans, producing four tides a day, which is the dominant gravitational effect on Earth due to the moon's 28-29 day cycle (2h23m40s).
• Galileo incorrectly used the phenomenon of tides to support his argument that the Earth revolves around the Sun, claiming that the combined motions of the Earth's rotation and revolution caused the sloshing of liquids, resulting in tides (2h23m52s).
• Even brilliant scientists like Galileo, Einstein, and Newton can be wrong, but being wrong for the right reasons is important in science, as it means they are genuinely trying to solve problems and seek the truth (2h24m21s).
• There is no clear evidence that the lunar cycle influences human menstrual cycles, but it may influence other animals, and humans are prone to drawing correlations and making predictions (2h25m12s).
• The moon is moving away from the Earth at a rate of about the width of a thumb's fingernail every year due to gravitational competition and the friction provided by the Earth's oceans (2h25m51s).
• In the past, the moon was closer to the Earth, and millions of years ago, it was much closer, which may have had an impact on the evolution of life on Earth (2h26m16s).
• The moon's increasing distance from the Earth means that eventually, it will no longer be able to cause total solar eclipses, but instead, will cause annular eclipses (2h26m9s).

Northern Hemisphere & Stargazing, Dark Sky Communities, Telescope (2h26m36s)

• There are several places in the Northern Hemisphere where people can go to see spectacular nighttime views, such as the High Country in August for the meteor shower, which offers a light show beyond anything experienced with the naked eye, assuming it's not cloudy (2h26m48s).
• The four major meteor showers, one in each season, can be watched with the naked eye, and it's recommended not to use a telescope as it limits the field of view, which is around 190 degrees for humans (2h27m25s).
• The colors of different meteorites are contributed by various elements, which are listed on a website, and sometimes colors and intensity can be seen during meteor showers (2h27m36s).
• Places more than 20-40 miles away from a big major city are fine for stargazing, and there are dark sky communities like Julian, California, and Borrego Springs, which have rules to minimize light pollution (2h27m45s).
• These dark sky communities have rules that forbid upward-shining light, and the only light allowed is downward-facing with narrow spectral bands, which can be filtered out with inexpensive optical filters (2h28m1s).
• Almost anywhere can be a good spot for stargazing, but it's good to know that a $50 telescope can show 90% of what's fascinating to a layperson, including craters and mountains on the moon (2h28m23s).
• The mountains on the moon were not just interesting features but also destroyed the scientific paradigm that the moon was perfectly crystalline and spherical, and Galileo was able to measure the height of these mountains and the plains of lava flows (2h28m40s).
• With a small telescope, one can see the rings of Saturn, the moons of Jupiter, and even the Andromeda galaxy, which is outside of our galaxy and was discovered by Edwin Hubble in 1923 to be a separate galaxy (2h29m6s).
• The Andromeda galaxy is visible to the naked eye on most fall nights in the constellation Andromeda and is six times wider than the full moon (2h29m46s).

Constellations, Asterism; Halley's & Hale-Bopp Comets (2h29m51s)

• Many ancient constellations are difficult to understand as they do not resemble their described shapes, leading to speculation about the imagination or perception of ancient people who named them (2h29m52s).
• The Big Dipper and the Little Dipper are not constellations but rather asterisms, which are collections of stars associated with each other but not the full composition of a constellation (2h30m16s).
• The Big Dipper is part of the constellation Ursa Major, also known as the Great Bear, while the Little Dipper is an asterism of seven stars that make up part of the constellation Ursa Minor, the Little Bear (2h30m41s).
• There are 88 recognized constellations in the sky, but individuals can create their own asterisms by identifying a group of associated stars (2h31m6s).
• Halley's Comet is a notable comet that passes by the Earth every 76 years and was visible in the sky when the speaker was 14 years old (2h31m20s).
• The speaker recalls seeing Halley's Comet as a smear of light while on a camping trip, but is unsure if they really saw it or just imagined it (2h31m43s).
• Another notable comet is Hale-Bopp, which was associated with a group of people in San Diego who committed mass suicide, believing they would ascend to a higher plane of existence (2h31m54s).

Navigation, Columbus (2h32m13s)

• The relationship between comets and human behaviors, such as lunacy and crime statistics, has been observed, with words like "disaster" and "catastrophe" originating from the idea that stars and comets influence events on Earth (2h32m16s).
• In the past, people believed that celestial forces, including comets and eclipses, caused events on Earth, and that propitiating these forces was necessary to avoid disasters (2h32m33s).
• Christopher Columbus's life was saved in Jamaica in 1498 when an astronomer with him predicted a total solar eclipse, which Columbus used as a threat to the native inhabitants to release his captured crew (2h32m45s).
• Navigation and astronomy have always been intimately related, with the North Star (Polaris) being used for navigation, as it is close to being directly above the North Pole and marks true north (2h33m7s).
• Measuring longitude was difficult until the development of reliable timekeeping devices, which was crucial for navigation, and Greenwich became important as the reference point for measuring longitude (2h33m58s).
• The development of latitude and longitude measurement is related to capitalism and the economy, with London's huge economy being influenced by its role in global commerce (2h34m6s).
• Columbus brought an astronomer with him on his voyage, who predicted the solar eclipse that saved Columbus's life, and this event was used as a form of military coercion (2h34m30s).
• The book "Longitude" by Dava Sobel is an important read for understanding the development of reliable timekeeping devices for navigation at sea, and it has changed the way people think about human evolution and technology development (2h35m21s).
• The longitude prize in the 1700s, which aimed to develop a clock that could be used in naval situations, was an early predecessor of the Nobel Prize, and was won by John Harrison, who invented a mechanical clock that was a predecessor of modern atomic clocks (2h35m58s).

Adaptive Optics, Scintillation, Artificial Stars (2h36m29s)

• In the field of Neuroscience, there is a desire to see smaller and smaller things at higher and higher resolution, leading to incredible discoveries in microscopy, such as two-photon microscopy, one-photon microscopy, and electron microscopy, which can see things down to the nanometer size (2h36m36s).
• Adaptive Optics, developed by David Williams's Group at the University of Rochester, uses the presence of noise in the environment as part of the microscope to get a better image, and was initially used in the field of Ophthalmology to look into the back of the eye (2h37m1s).
• The eye has a lens, Vitus, and multiple layers that light must pass through before reaching the photo receptors, causing light scatter and noise, but Adaptive Optics can use this noise to improve the image (2h37m30s).
• In astronomy, Adaptive Optics is used to overcome the limitations of the Earth's atmosphere, which acts as a dirty window, scattering and distorting light, and is used in telescopes launched above the atmosphere, such as the Hubble Space Telescope and the James Webb telescope (2h38m41s).
• The cost of building and operating scientific instruments, such as telescopes, is often underestimated, and a rule of thumb is to multiply the construction cost by pi to account for operating costs, which can be 10 times the construction cost over 10 years (2h39m16s).
• The cost of launching a kilogram of payload into orbit has decreased over time, with Elon Musk's efforts making it cheaper, but it still remains expensive (2h39m53s).
• The Starlink satellites launched by Elon Musk are causing issues for astronomers as they leave satellite trails behind them in astronomical images, which can ruin the image and require waiting for them to pass before taking another picture (2h39m58s).
• Unlike optical satellites, which can be painted black to prevent reflection, the Starlink satellites cannot be stealthed as they emit heat, making them visible in the microwave spectral range used to study the cosmic microwave background (CMB) (2h40m34s).
• Elon Musk was informed about the issue, but his response was that having internet everywhere is more important, and he would look into it, although no action has been taken yet (2h41m5s).
• To mitigate the effects of the atmosphere on telescope images, scientists are looking for ways to reduce the impact of atmospheric turbulence, which causes scintillation, or the twinkling of stars (2h41m43s).
• Scintillation is caused by the atmosphere's macroscopic turbulence features, which refract light at slightly different angles, making stars appear to jitter or move around (2h42m6s).
• Unlike stars, planets do not scintillate, which can be used to identify them, and this can be observed with a telescope (2h42m54s).
• The atmosphere's effects on telescope images are difficult to overcome, and it would be expensive to launch a telescope above the atmosphere, so scientists are looking for ways to mitigate these effects (2h41m31s).
• Astronomers can identify planets by their lack of cavitation, which is a way to distinguish them from stars or planes (2h43m15s).
• In the 1960s and 70s, astronomers, including colleague Max, discovered that using a fake star, also known as a guide star or artificial star, could help measure the properties of celestial objects (2h43m27s).
• The guide star is created by shooting a laser into the troposphere, which illuminates sodium ions and causes them to fluoresce, making it look like a star (2h44m31s).
• By knowing the exact properties of the guide star, astronomers can measure its light through the same optics of the telescope and use a flexible deformable mirror to compensate for atmospheric turbulence (2h43m41s).
• The deformable mirror can wobble and wiggle to nullify the atmospheric turbulence, allowing for clearer images (2h43m50s).
• This technology was used by Andrea Ghez at UCLA to measure the properties of stars orbiting around the black hole at the center of the Milky Way and test Einstein's theory of relativity (2h45m13s).
• The technology was classified by the US military in the 1970s and 80s due to its potential use in spy satellites, limiting its availability to astronomers (2h45m45s).
• As a result, Claire Max, who contributed to the development of this technology, was unable to patent it and potentially become wealthy (2h46m10s).
• Astronomers use adaptive optics to compensate for the distortion caused by the Earth's atmosphere when observing objects in space, similar to how snipers use optical compensation in their scopes to make accurate shots (2h46m15s).
• The technology of adaptive optics has been influenced by astronomy and has also influenced military developments (2h46m43s).
• There are technologies that use lasers to extract sound waves, allowing for the possibility of hearing conversations inside a room by shining a laser at a window from a distance (2h46m53s).
• The conversion of sound waves to optical and back to sound allows for the possibility of hearing sounds that are not audible to the human ear (2h47m11s).
• A technology developed at Stanford uses lasers to see around corners by capturing reflections and sound waves at a location, allowing for the reconstruction of images around corners (2h47m20s).
• The technology of seeing around corners has military and spy implications, but also has the potential to be used in other fields such as mapping the positions and movements of deep-sea creatures without having to visually observe them (2h47m42s).
• Adaptive acoustics can be used to hear sounds underwater, allowing for the possibility of listening to music or other sounds while submerged (2h48m5s).

Life Outside Earth? (2h48m28s)

• The possibility of life existing outside Earth is a topic of interest, with some speculating about the existence of insects, small multicellular organisms, or even microbial life on other planets, which would be a significant discovery (2h48m28s).
• There is currently no evidence of life existing anywhere else in the universe, and any claims of extraterrestrial life have not been conclusively proven (2h49m47s).
• The discovery of a meteorite in Antarctica in 1997, known as the Allen Hills meteorite, was initially believed to contain evidence of microbial life from Mars, but this finding was never confirmed or falsified (2h50m51s).
• The meteorite's origin was thought to be from Mars, with the reasoning being that an asteroid hit the surface of Mars, ejecting debris into space, which eventually landed on Earth (2h52m6s).
• The possibility of life existing elsewhere in the universe would significantly transform our understanding of human existence and our place in the universe (2h50m4s).
• Some scientists argue that the probability of life existing elsewhere in the universe is low, but this argument cannot be proven or disproven due to the lack of evidence (2h49m39s).
• The discovery of extraterrestrial life, even if it's just microbial life, would be a groundbreaking finding that would revolutionize our understanding of the universe (2h51m14s).
• The impact of asteroids and meteorites on planets and moons in our solar system is a common occurrence, and it's possible that debris from Mars could have been ejected into space and landed on Earth (2h52m0s).
• Material from Mars has landed on Earth, as evidenced by meteorites, and it is possible that material from Earth has also been ejected into space and landed on Mars, potentially carrying life forms such as tardigrades or protozoa (2h52m10s).
• Millions of tons of Earth material are floating in space, and some of it may have landed on Mars, which could be discovered in the future (2h52m58s).
• Adaptogens are compounds that allow organisms to modulate their stress response, increasing their stress threshold or recovering from stress more quickly, and can include substances like certain mushroom strains or rhodiola (2h53m27s).
• The origin of life on Earth is a mystery, and one theory is panspermia, which proposes that genetic material was transferred from another astronomical object to Earth (2h54m14s).
• The fact that life has not been observed on Mars, despite the planet having conditions suitable for liquid water, suggests that there may be an impediment to life existing on Mars (2h54m52s).
• The universe likely contains a vast number of planets, with an estimated 10^24 planets in the observable universe and hundreds of billions of planets in the Milky Way Galaxy alone (2h55m7s).
• The idea that the universe is vast and mostly empty, with seemingly no life, is often referred to as an "awful waste of space," a phrase coined by Carl Sagan (2h55m26s).
• Some scientists argue that the existence of life can be explained by science, and as science advances, the need for a "god of the gaps" explanation decreases, but this argument is not applied to the existence of life in the universe (2h55m36s).
• The continent of Antarctica, which makes up 8% of the Earth's landmass, is incredibly barren, with almost no life forms, challenging the idea that life should be proportional to the amount of area (2h56m13s).
• The odds of life existing are difficult to determine, and it's challenging to construct probability from possibility, with many arguments suggesting the improbability of life (2h56m32s).
• Creating life is extremely hard, and scientists have yet to reproduce a functional cell in a laboratory, making it difficult to speculate on the existence of life elsewhere (2h57m9s).
• The history of life on Earth is unique, with only one example, making it challenging to determine if life is abundant in the galaxy (2h57m18s).
• The question of where the aliens are, if life is abundant, remains unanswered, despite the galaxy being old enough for life to have evolved and traveled the distances of the galaxy (2h57m28s).
• The fact that we have been broadcasting radio waves for 85 years and have not received any signals from other life forms raises further questions about the existence of life elsewhere (2h57m47s).

Gut Microbiome; Building Planet (2h57m50s)

• The human body is populated with microbiota that influence various biological processes, including fatty acid production and neurotransmitter production, and these microbiota can change based on interactions with the environment, such as shaking hands, kissing, or interacting with pets (2h57m50s).
• There is a theory that humans and other species are just vehicles for the microbiome, and that the microbiota have a consciousness of their own, driving them to make more of themselves and populate new areas (2h58m35s).
• This theory suggests that human desires, such as populating Mars or developing technology, may be driven by the microbiota's desire to expand and evolve (2h58m40s).
• The idea of building a planet at an appropriate distance from the Sun to spawn life, rather than searching for life elsewhere in the galaxy, is an interesting concept that could involve creating a "garden planet" with robots and nutrients (2h59m35s).
• This concept is less risky than traveling to other planets and could involve using robots to collect materials in space to build the planet (3h0m24s).
• Freeman Dyson's idea of Dyson spheres, which are megastructures that could harvest energy from a star, is relevant to the concept of building a habitable planet, as energy is a necessary ingredient for constructing such a planet (3h0m38s).
• Dyson spheres would involve surrounding a star and capturing every photon worth of energy, converting it into a usable form, and could potentially be observable by astronomers (3h0m58s).
• The concept of infinite energy and its potential applications, such as fusion and 3D printing at the quark level, were discussed as a hypothetical scenario for advanced alien civilizations, although there is no evidence to support this idea (3h1m14s).
• Science fiction can be a source of interesting scientific ideas and creativity, and it's fun to explore these concepts, even if they are not based on current evidence (3h1m32s).
• The conversation between two individuals with a passion for learning and science can lead to a wide range of topics, from stars and planets to optics and animals on Earth (3h1m43s).
• The importance of intellectual curiosity and exploration was highlighted, and it was noted that not everyone occupies the same intellectual space, often due to a lack of focus on these questions rather than a lack of training (3h2m6s).
• The value of popular science education and its importance in inspiring people to learn about science were emphasized, and one individual was praised for their work in promoting science education (3h2m57s).
• The conversation also touched on the importance of being grounded in daily life while still exploring and asking questions about the universe and its mysteries (3h3m29s).
• The delight of exploration and asking questions was encouraged, and it was suggested that people should get outside and look at the stars, either through a telescope or simply by observing the world around them (3h3m40s).
• The conversation ended with an expression of gratitude and appreciation for the opportunity to discuss these topics and a desire to continue exploring the mysteries of the universe (3h3m59s).
• Future topics for discussion were mentioned, including the concept of God in the universe and the origins of life (3h4m4s).
• The importance of passion and curiosity in science was highlighted, and it was noted that even experienced scientists can become jaded and lose their sense of wonder, but that it's essential to maintain a sense of curiosity and passion for discovery (3h4m36s).
• A true scientist is characterized by a specific trait, although this trait is not explicitly stated, it is implied to be related to curiosity and open-mindedness, which is often lost in the education system (3h4m39s).
• Education seems to suppress this trait in children, but having it in one's domain and area of expertise is a real inspiration and a huge service to society (3h4m42s).
• The conversation is concluded with an expression of gratitude and appreciation for the discussion, with the participants thanking each other for their time and effort (3h4m52s).

Zero-Cost Support, Spotify & Apple Follow & Reviews, Sponsors, YouTube Feedback, Social Media, Protocols Book, Neural Network Newsletter (3h5m0s)

• To learn more about Dr. Brian Keating's work, podcast, book, and other resources, please see the show notes and captions (3h5m7s).
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• A new book, "Protocols: An Operating Manual for the Human Body," is available for pre-sale at protocolsbook.com, covering protocols for sleep, exercise, stress control, focus, and motivation (3h6m10s).
• The book is based on over 30 years of research and experience and provides scientific substantiation for the included protocols (3h6m17s).
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• The newsletter includes brief PDFs on topics such as optimizing sleep, regulating dopamine, and deliberate cold and heat exposure (3h6m57s).
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